tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-56489449576946081742024-03-13T16:58:48.739-04:00For Teaching Online...What will be, will be, by the Grace of our Lord, Jesus Christ.Deborah L. Popovicihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00026428885357985185noreply@blogger.comBlogger48125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5648944957694608174.post-24588298995651032462016-07-18T05:32:00.000-04:002016-07-18T05:32:23.298-04:00UpdateI am honored that over 40,000 viewers have visited my blog. As of today...my status as an ABD (All but dissertation) remains. I offer online tutoring in successfully writing academic research as well as very low cost editing of research drafts, which includes proper ADA formatting. Please feel free to email me queries and comments. God bless America!!Deborah L. Popovicihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00026428885357985185noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5648944957694608174.post-36320235424138855422015-04-18T02:34:00.000-04:002015-04-18T02:34:10.171-04:00GreetingsAchieving success in academic pursuits can be compounded when one's school has a mission to hang on to a student to gain as much tuition money as possible rather than supporting a student with a 3.9 GPA to achieve their dissertation's approval. I've achieved my lifetime's goal in my academic pursuits despite that mission, which countered integrity. My blog is reaching 30,000 hits, and of this achievement I am proud. Many blessings to those who walk their own path.Deborah L. Popovicihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00026428885357985185noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5648944957694608174.post-43152418511380500062013-03-04T14:02:00.000-05:002013-03-04T14:02:01.596-05:00Writing the Dissertation.....<span style="font-family: "Courier New", Courier, monospace;">Just wanted to update my blog. I am a few months from finishing my dissertation on the academic performance issues with American secondary students. I also want to thank Dr. Robin Throne for recently adding qualifications to me at my Indeed profile. I will add to my blog as time allows over the next few months. I am close to reaching 10,000 hits for the material in my blog, and that makes me happy that my writing may be of help to others. Thank you, and wish me luck on my PhD pursuit!</span>Deborah L. Popovicihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00026428885357985185noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5648944957694608174.post-74235141453969934882012-12-16T15:02:00.001-05:002012-12-16T15:02:10.111-05:00Best Practices Relevant to Instructing Post-Secondary E-Learners
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">A review of critical elements in research
methodologies improves an instructor's research skills.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Improving acumen in research methods by
examining academically grounded resources contributes to the adoption and
application of best practices.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A review
of research methodologies follows. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The research
studies reviewed include (a) e-learning technologies in a design-based research
(DBR) study by Bower (2011), (b) a faculty's </span><span class="title-link-wrapper1"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;">motivational
factors affecting the integration of a learning management system by </span></span><span class="medium-font"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Gautreau (2011), (c) </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">analysis of users' satisfaction with e-learning by
Chen and Lin (2008), </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">(d) <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">team learning in technology-mediated distributed teams by </span>Andres
and Shipps (2010), and (e) field experiences promoting cross-cultural awareness
in preservice teachers by Malewski, Sharma, and Phillion (2012).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span><br />
<div style="text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">A Design-Based Research Study </span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Appraising
the design-based research (DBR) methodology included reviews of Bower (2011), Akilli
(2008), and Amiel and Reeves (2008).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The
reviews included details about appraising validity and reliability in DBR
studies.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>An understanding of the
similarities and differences between research designs learned previously
provided a better analysis of Bower's (2011) study.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Reviewing research by Akilli (2008), which
explained the differences between quantitative, qualitative, mixed methods, and
DBR methodologies, provided more comprehensive information than Bower (2011)
and Amiel and Reeves (2008).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A review of
Akilli (2008) and Amiel and Reeves (2008) precedes the analysis of Bower's
(2011) study.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Akilli
(2008) wrote that the flexible processes used in DBR help designers and
instructors to expect and integrate changes repeatedly during the DBR
process.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Such a design is reminiscent of
continuous quality improvements used in previous employment experiences.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Quality improvements also require carefully
documented processes during retesting.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The
second article by Amiel and Reeves (2008) discussed that research methods that investigate
the learning functions of tools and techniques have weaknesses that DBR can resolve.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In fact, Amiel and Reeves (2008) argued that some
researchers' work focusing upon in-use technologies to improve learning proffered
feeble systematic advice to instructors. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Many educational researchers recommend DBR
methods because its goal strengthens the bridge between "educational
research and real-world problems" (Amiel and Reeves, 2008, p. 35).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The methodology that coincides with DBR is
not prepared as a typical research design.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>However, as noted above, DBR resolves weaknesses that other designs
cannot thereby contributing to improved learning.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Therefore, an analysis of Bower's (2011)
study was included below.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">The
Research Problem, Questions, or Hypotheses</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-pagination: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Bower (2011) explained that using synchronous
web-conferencing tools is less complex than employing asynchronous e-tools.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The characteristics of asynchronous
environments include (a) instructors who need in-services to keep technical
skills up-to-date, (b) an increasing use of e-tools as new tools replace older
tool, (c) learning institutes that need sufficient and progressive technical
systems, (d) consideration of learners' technical and collaborative skills, and
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">(e)
integration of e-tools within an institution's technical systems and
curriculums that demands vigilance (Bower, 2011). <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>By using web-conferencing, instructors
introduce "less transmissive and more active distance learning
pedagogies" (Bower, 2011, p. 64).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>B</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: Times-Roman;">arab and Squire (2004) remarked that r</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">ather
than identifying hypotheses, </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: Times-Roman;">DBR
looks at several design elements that results in profiling a design's
attributes.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">The Research Purpose </span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-pagination: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Bower (2011) posited that
web-conferencing was more successful than asynchronous learning because a
student's collaborative competency and technical skill is often sufficient for
web-conferencing but not for asynchronous learning.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Improved success results in improved
knowledge construction.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Students' and
instructors' cognitive load during learning technological and collaborative
skills increases stress that reduces abilities to learn and teach curricula
(Bower, 2011).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Bower's (2011) research
purpose included identification of web-conferencing competencies, and its
impact on learning. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Gaps exist in
literature regarding systematic empirical studies that tested student's and
instructor's collaborative skills in synchronous or asynchronous settings
(Bower, 2011).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-pagination: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">The Type of Design and Elements of
the Design </span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-pagination: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The DBRs iterative method evaluates
an "innovative product or intervention …refines the innovation, and
produces design principles" (Amiel and Reeves, 2008, p. 34) usable by
future researchers.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Bower (2011) also explained
instructors use DBR as a means to create models that support knowledge-building
in a naturalistic learning environment.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Bower's (2011) design elements included repetitive series of
"theory-based analysis, design, and testing" (p. 67). <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Apparently, these elements sought to extract
principles for generating useful learning platforms.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Bower's (2011) intention for using DBR was
due to its capacity to validate genuine learning environments, and its
practicality for informing a learning design's solution.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-pagination: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Operational variables were
two-fold.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The teacher who was also the
participant researcher <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>recorded, and
reviewed lessons from an introductory computer programming class.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The phenomenological framework included
documentation of observations by the teacher (Bower, 2011).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Recording and documenting the learners' and
instructor's acumen occurred during synchronous collaboration (Bower, 2011).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The data included the range of effects and relative
prevalence.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>DBRs variables are also characterized
by "</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: Times-Roman;">multiple
dependent variables, including climate variables (such as collaboration among
learners, and available resources), outcome variables (such as learning of
content, and learning transfer), and system variables (such as dissemination, and
sustainability)" (Barab and Squire, 2004, p. 4).</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-pagination: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The total sample studied over two
years during three semesters initially included 26 enrolled students
represented by nine females and 17 males.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>However, a total of six students dropped the course leaving only 20
students by the study's end.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Other
design elements included observation of three levels of synchronous
collaboration, which were operational, interactional, and managerial (Bower,
2011).</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-pagination: none; text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Details Regarding Threats to
Validity and How Resolved</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-pagination: none; text-align: left;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"></span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Because
Bower (2011) did not refer to validity, a review of Sandoval and Bell (2004)
provided the necessary information to assess Bower's (2011) validity.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>No scientific analysis supported validity
within Bower's (2011) study.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, design-based
research parameters may not require such an analysis, and ultimately provide
valid results.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Sandoval and Bell (2004)
indicated that significant discomfort arises from the research community with
educational research because scientific methods are not always employed.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>However,
decreased threats to validity and reliability are achievable by methodological
alignment as observations redolent of DBR research occurs.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For example, theoretical knowledge increases
due to observations over the course of a DBR that results in improved interventions
(Sandoval and Bell, 2004).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Bower (2011)
could have infused validity by modifying the design to test emerging
assumptions as the study progressed.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Educators
wishing to adopt Bower's (2011) observations cannot be assured that learning
outcomes would occur and Bower's (2011) could be detrimental to students. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Akilli
(2008) noted that DBR researchers have used mixed methods to assess
interventions' outcomes, and revised interventions accordingly.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>"Mixed methods warrants objectivity,
validity, credibility, and applicability of the findings" (Akilli, 2008,
p. 3) due to measurements between data.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>As noted, Bower (2011) did not embrace mixed methods.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: Times-Roman;">Rather,
Bower's (2011) DBR focused upon "characterizing situations (as opposed to
controlling variables) (and) developing a profile or theory that characterizes
the design in practice (as opposed to simply testing hypotheses)" (Barab
and Squire, 2004, p. 3).</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"> <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Because
Bower (2011) did not employ research methods that could improve validation of
his findings, the meaning, significance, and ability to add to learning theory
was uncompelling.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>If
Bower (2011) wanted to further theoretical knowledge for learning in academic
settings, Barab and Squire (2004) indicated that advancing knowledge required evidence-based
claims.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Bower's (2011) research does not
fulfill the requirements of evidence-based claims.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Until Bower (2011) responds to the
requirements of DBR as noted by Barab and Squire (2004) and others, the
robustness of Bower's (2011) study is unsupportable.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Furthermore, Bower (2011) needs to address
validity associated with an approval from an institutional review board due to
the involvement of human participants.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><i><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></i></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-pagination: none; text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Findings from Research and Implications</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-pagination: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Bower (2011) reported that the
web-conferencing learning environment was associated with improved learner
satisfaction. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For example, learners
received just-in-time web-conferencing training, which helped learners to
remember the technical steps to maneuver within the learning environment
(Bower, 2011).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As learners'
proficiencies increased, learners gained more control of the learning environment,
and interactions climbed.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Bower (2011)
observed that instructors' lower-level competencies, which used operational and
interaction skills, required less effort than higher level management and
designing competencies.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-pagination: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Less effective learning occurred due
to instructors misusing and misunderstanding the learning environment.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Bower (2011) recommended pre-class tutorials
for overcoming instructors' and learners' incompetencies.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Web-conferencing software negatively impacted
an ability for learners and the instructor to view each other (Bower, 2011).</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-pagination: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>When learning sessions are underway,
Bower (2011) recommended that instructors run two computers, which facilitates
improved session outcomes.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Instructors
can scan everyone's activities immediately, and make technical adjustments
quickly while instruction is underway.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Bower (2011) recommended that schools ensure that learners receive the
technical training required prior to classes beginning not only because
learning improves significantly and empowers students but also because learners
expect that learning technologies will be at least the same as they currently
use and more.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-pagination: none; text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Demographics and Motivations for Faculty
Adoption of a Learning Management System</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-pagination: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Understanding the critical elements
of academically grounded research contributes to the adoption and application
of best practices.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In anticipation of
teaching post-secondary online students in business or education curricula,
staying up-to-date on evolving learning technologies, strategies, and
applications requires expertise in evaluating peer-reviewed literature.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Consequently, a review follows that discusses
research methodologies pertinent to the aforementioned specialization.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-pagination: none; text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">The Research Problem, Questions, or
Hypotheses</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-pagination: none;">
<span class="medium-font"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>A
study by Gautreau (2011) investigated the motivational factors affecting an instructor's
implementation of an online learning management system (LMS).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Gautreau's (2011) literature review revealed that
many universities fell short in training learning technologies to faculty
members.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Gautreau (2011) was adamant
that institutes need to provide a strong system of effective motivational
strategies for instructors' training in LMSs.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">G<span class="medium-font">autreau's (2011) two r</span>esearch
questions asked the degree that demographics related to instructors'
motivations to implement an LMS and the rank of motivational elements as
instructors adopted LMSs.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-pagination: none; text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">The Research Purpose </span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-pagination: none;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Gautreau
(2011) indicated that his study's purpose was to demarcate motivational issues
related to concessions instructors accept prior to adopting LMSs.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In addition, Gautreau's (2011) study's
intention was to review face-to-face and online instructors' demographics to
clarify and relate any motivational elements involved in initiating the use of
an LMS.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Adding a study that consistently
identified the effects of motivational factors with demographics would replace
weaknesses in existing literature.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-pagination: none; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"></span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">The Type of Design and Elements of
the Design </span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-pagination: none;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Gautreau
(2011) used the motivation hygiene theory (MHT) to influence the test
instrument's design, which evaluated two research questions using a needs
assessment.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The MHTs underpinning
enabled the identification of motivators.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The first research question included studying demographical elements such
as "gender, age, tenure status, department, and years of experience using
an LMS" (Gautreau, 2011, p. 2).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The second research question explored the intrinsic and extrinsic
factors incurred by instructors.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The
sample included 42 tenured and tenure track College of Communications' instructors
at a public California university (Gautreau, 2011).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The operational construct was a
self-evaluation survey instrument. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>An
assessment of demographic information by a chi-square test of independence used
a five-point Likert scale ranging from "strongly agree…to strongly
disagree" (Gautreau, 2011, p. 10). </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-pagination: none; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Details
Regarding Threats to Validity and How Resolved</b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-pagination: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>While Gautreau (2011) did not
mention any threats to validity, there was an indication that the study's
sample of 42 instructors was small and sourced from only one university's
department, both of which could affect confidence.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, Gautreau (2011) did not resolve the
two aforementioned threats.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Instead,
Gautreau (2011) noted that a future study could include an instructor
participant from more colleges and that the accuracy of data collection could
be amplified with the use of a survey. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Gautreau's
(2011) conclusion that "tenure status, level of experience with an LMS,
and level of experience with computers" (p. 11) impacting an instructor's
willingness to use an LMS appears correct due to these three variables having
significance (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">p<0 .05=".05" i="i">). </0></i></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-pagination: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Although other researchers investigated
several more factors that affect motivation in using an LMS, Gautreau (2011)
indicated that because the other studies addressed different factors thereby
causing "uniformity" (p. 10) issues, his study limited the number of factors
investigated.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Gautreau (2011) addressed uniformity
issues by using random selection.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Rather
than narrowing the study, Gautreau's (2011) study could have included research
elements presented by other researchers.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>By including the other elements, Gautreau (2011) might have provided
stronger evidence to support his findings.</span><span style="font-family: "Helvetica","sans-serif"; font-size: 14pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-pagination: none; text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Findings from Research and
Implications </span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Gautreau's (2011) study found that
participants' age and gender did not impact the choice of selecting an
LMS.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, as noted above, an
instructor's "tenure status, level of experience with an LMS, and level of
experience with computers" (Gautreau, 2011, p. 11) did impact an
instructor's willingness to use an LMS.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Analysis of each of the three elements resulted in a significant
relationship (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">p<0 .05=".05" i="i">) to using an LMSs
(Gautreau, 2011).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></0></i></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Gautreau's (2011) first research
question asked if demographics affected motivation toward the use of an
LMS.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Strangely, Gautreau (2011) noted
that untenured instructors chose to use e-tools to improve student learning but
did not mention results concerning tenured instructors.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Gautreau's (2011) output table, which was not
well formatted, disclosed a sample of 28 men and 13 women and the participants
were 51% tenured and 49% untenured.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Fifty-seven
per cent of the sample had more than five years of experience with an LMS, 31%
had two to five years, and 12% had fewer than two years.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-pagination: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>While Gautreau (2011) wrote that his
study's data was consistent with others' research, which showed tenure status determined
the use of technology resources, he did not display any supportive data.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For example, Gautreau's (2011) output table
showed 51% tenured and 49% untenured.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>However, the table did not indicate the per cent of tenured and
untenured as this factor related to per cent of LMS experience.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The output table's data should have
differentiated years of LMS experience between tenured and untenured.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-pagination: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Gautreau (2011) also confounded his
findings because years of experience with an LMS was not the same as a
determinant that technology resources would be used, which is futuristic. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Due to the apparent problems with
Gautreau's<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(2011) analysis, his claim of
consistency was ungrounded and his data should be more transparent.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Therefore, Gautreau (2011) did not support
his first research question. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-pagination: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Gautreau's (2011) second research
question addressed the ranked order of motivators associated with adopting an
LMS.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Gautreau's (2011) study determined
that the ranked order of motivators from greatest to least was "salary,
responsibility, achievement, advancement, company policy and administration,
the work itself, and recognition" (p. 12). <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Gautreau (2011) made one suggestion for
increasing the degree of motivation for salary, responsibility, and achievement
but stopped after these motivators.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-pagination: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>If Gautreau (2011) had suggestions
for increasing each of the motivators, the study would have greater
impact.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Gautreau (2011) even noted that
all motivators should be considered relevant when he postulated that rankings
would "fluctuate depending upon several variables" (p. 15). <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Furthermore, Gautreau (2011) decided to
recommend that instructors' technological proficiencies be addressed by a
developmental program.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Linking
proficiency to years of experience was not addressed, and the association was
unsupported by data or identified as a motivator. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">A
Research Study on <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Users' Satisfaction
with E-Learning</span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-pagination: none;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Understanding
the critical elements of academically grounded research contributes to the
adoption and application of best practices.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>In anticipation of teaching post-secondary online students in business
or education curricula, staying up-to-date on evolving learning technologies,
strategies, and applications requires expertise in evaluating peer-reviewed
literature.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Consequently, a review of
research methodologies pertinent to the aforementioned specialization
follows.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-pagination: none; text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">The Research Problem, Questions, or
Hypotheses</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Chen and Lin (2008) presented an analysis of users'
satisfaction with e-learning using a negative critical incidents approach.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Ensuring that e-learning programs achieve the
targeted learning outcomes, the research by Chen and Lin (2008) investigated
supportive mechanisms for learner satisfaction.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>An association between frequency of negative
critical incidents (FNCI), attribute-specific cumulative satisfaction (ASCS),
and overall cumulative satisfaction (OCS) in the model used by Chen and Lin
(2008) was grounded in the expectancy disconfirmation theory.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The association noted above was
reflected by the researchers' three hypotheses, which were (1)
"attribute-specific cumulative satisfaction for e-learning is directly,
and negatively affected by the frequency of negative critical incidents in
e-learning" (Chen & Lin, 2008, p. 117), (2) "overall cumulative
satisfaction for e-learning is indirectly and negatively affected by the
frequency of negative critical incidents through attribute-specific cumulative
satisfaction with e-learning" (p. 117), and (3) "overall cumulative
satisfaction for e-learning is indirectly and negatively affected by the
frequency of negative critical incidents through attribute-specific cumulative
satisfaction with e-learning" (p. 117).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Chen and Lin (2008) anticipated that investigating the three hypotheses
would clarify learners' satisfaction levels.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-pagination: none; text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">The Research Purpose </span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-pagination: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The purpose of the study by Chen and
Lin (2008) sought to validate an e-learning satisfaction assessment model.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Consequently, the research team chose the
Satisfaction Assessment from Frequency of e-Learning (SAFE) model.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Specifically, SAFE measured "negative
critical incidents for e-learning" (Chen & Lin, 2008, p. 117).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-pagination: none;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">The Type of Design and Elements of
the Design </span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The University of Taiwan was the study's
location.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The results of a pilot study
involving 51 online students (67% male and 33% female) aided the research team
in improving an "anonymous questionnaire survey" (Chen & Lin,
2008, p. 118) prior to the main study.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The questionnaire evaluated students' opinions about a variety of functions
within the school's e-learning system. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Two-hundred
and sixty-three online Master's students were required to undergo an
examination at the campus.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The revised questionnaire
was distributed at the examination by the research team, and the team collected
240 completed questionnaires.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-pagination: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The questionnaire's seven-item
Likert scale included categories such as "administration, functionality,
instruction, and interaction" (Chen & Lin, 2008, p. 118).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The assessment model, SAFE, was measured
using normed Chi-square, and "all fit-indices indicated that the model was
a good fit for e-learning" (Chen & Lin, 2008, p. 122).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Constructs were administration and
functionality, and there were eight inter-constructs.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-pagination: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Validation of the model tested hypothesized
associations (Chen & Lin, 2008), and LISREL 8.3 software analyzed the
data.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>An overall mean cumulative learner
satisfaction was 5.68, which indicated that learners' satisfaction with
e-learning approaches ranged between satisfied and very satisfied (Chen &
Lin, 2008).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The ASCS analysis showed
learners' satisfaction ranged between "no comment and satisfied"
(Chen & Lin, 2008, p. 122).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The FNCI
analysis showed a range between "sometimes and often" (Chen &
Lin, 2008, p. 122).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-pagination: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Standardized regression coefficients
evaluated causal hypotheses, and showed significance at the 0.01 level (Chen
& Lin, 2008).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Administration,
functionality, instruction, and interaction significantly impacted learner
satisfaction (Chen & Lin, 2008).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Interaction
had the most impact, which meant that improving interactions would result in
the largest gain in overall learner satisfaction (Chen & Lin, 2008). <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-pagination: none; text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Details Regarding Threats to
Validity and How Resolved</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-pagination: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>An inspection checked the instrument
's composite reliability and construct validity (Chen & Lin, 2008).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Due to the composite reliabilities being
above the suggested threshold of 0.6, and the confirmatory factor analysis of
the study's constructs above 0.6, convergent validity corroborated the measurement
model (Chen & Lin, 2008).</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-pagination: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>In addition, construct validity of
the "average variance extracted (AVE)" (Chen & Lin, 2008, p. 121)
was affirmed at the recommended exhibit estimate of 0.5.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Administration and functionality ranged from
just below 0.5 and 0.9, and underwent further review (Chen & Lin, 2008).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Correlations between construct pairs were
below the recommended 0.9 cutoff (Chen & Lin, 2008).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Therefore, "distinctness in construct
content or discriminate validity" (Chen & Lin, 2008, p. 121) was
achieved. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Chen and Lin (2008) produced a
research project that would compel peers to accept their findings due to the
reliability of the methodology used. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-pagination: none; text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Findings from Research and
Implications </span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-pagination: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>As noted above, the study results by
Chen and Lin (2008) disclosed that, "Inter-construct correlations were
below 0.9" (p. 121) and implied distinctness in both construct content and
discriminate validity.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In this study, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">H1</i> was sustained because e-learning
satisfaction did have a direct and negative impact by the frequency of negative
critical e-learning incidents (Chen & Lin, 2008).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Also, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">H2</i>
and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">H3</i> were supported because
administration, functionality, instruction, and interaction had only indirect
impact on overall e-learner satisfaction (Chen & Lin, 2008).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-pagination: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Other findings included that the
success of e-learning programs depends upon sufficient reflection by
administration, a functioning e-learning system, and a course of action that
supports the "instructional process and interaction among participants and
the instructor" (Chen & Lin, 2008, p. 124).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The study revealed other significant elements
impacting e-learner satisfaction, which included e-learner collaborations, the
discussion board technology and interactions, and limited office hours.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Chen and Lin (2008) recommended that
instructors improve e-learner interactivity by creating curricula that enhances
communications.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Employing assessment
models like SAFE that can assess positive and negative effects on learner
satisfaction rather than using models designed to only collect positive effects
affords researchers with more unbiased information (Chen & Lin, 2008).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>By using the SAFE model, which achieved 71%
explanatory power over 49% in models used by other researchers, a study's
results would more effectively support recommendations that improve e-learners'
satisfaction levels (Chen & Lin, 2008).</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-pagination: none; text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">A Research Study on L<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">earning in Technology-Mediated Distributed
Teams</span></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-pagination: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Understanding the critical elements
of academically grounded research contributes to the adoption and application
of best practices.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In anticipation of
teaching post-secondary online students in business or education curricula,
staying up-to-date on evolving learning technologies, strategies, and
applications requires expertise in evaluating peer-reviewed literature.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Consequently, a review of research
methodologies pertinent to the aforementioned specialization follows.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-pagination: none;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">The Research Problem, Questions, or
Hypotheses</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-pagination: none;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"></span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Andres and Shipps (2010) conducted a
study to discover if learning could be improved by using e-tools that
facilitated <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">project-based learning for
distributed teams.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Research questions
included, "H</span>ow does technology-mediated collaboration impact team
learning behaviors?" (Andres & Shipps, 2010, p. 213) and "Does
team learning involve both a technical and social process?" (p. 213).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Andres and Shipps (2010) decided that using a
direct observation study approach could improve the capture of actual real-time
behaviors, and alleviate issues affected by the lack of participants to recall
information.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Hypotheses determined by
Andres and Shipps (2010) included:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-pagination: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>(a) Groups working in a face-to-face
collaboration setting should exhibit more effective <span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>team learning behaviors than in a technology-mediated
setting, (b) positive association exists
between team learning behaviors and team productivity, and (c) positive associations exist between team learning
behaviors and the quality of team interactions.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"></span> (p. 215) </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="background: white; line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-pagination: none;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">The Research Purpose<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The
purpose of a study by Andres and Shipps (2010) was to contribute to current
research about the consequences of project-based team collaboration in a technology-mediated
learning environment.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>To identify the
consequences, an assessment was conducted of the roles that a team's learning
behaviors exhibited upon task outcomes. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The study also meant to observe the<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>associations between technology, learning,
and sociology in "technology-mediated distributed teams" (Andres &
Shipps, 2010, p. 213).</span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-pagination: none; text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">The Type of Design and Elements of
the Design </span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "TimesNewRomanPSMT","serif"; font-size: 9pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: TimesNewRomanPSMT;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">The research design by
Andres and Shipps (2010) used direct observation and employed an
"empirical interpretive research approach" (p. 215).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The approach by Andres and Shipps (2010) helped
to, "Interpret, evaluate and rate observable manifested behaviors and
qualitative content associated with project-based team learning" (p.
215).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Application of two learning
theories included the theory of affordances, and the social impact theory.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Andres
and Shipps (2010) posited that the two theories would be useful in creating a
model in which "collocated vs. non-collocated and videoconferencing
supported" learning might define the values associated with a learning
environment.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Such values were believed
to include evolution of critical thinking, and collective methods that impact team-building
(Andres & Shipps, 2010). <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Trained
observation staff ranked "task-related and affect-related" (Andres &
Shipps, 2010, p. 213) dialogues between learners.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The research team performed a pretest of the research
model and hypotheses, but no results were provided nor references made to any needed
modification.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Andres
and Shipps (2010) used a sample of 48 undergraduate students from a management
information systems (MIS) program.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Studies had shown that students at similar programming levels exhibited
similar abilities as professional programmers if the "problem domain (was)
well understood" (Andres & Shipps, 2010, p. 216).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The skill sets of such learners in MIS work
with moderately complex programming.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Each participant received extra credit, and the team achieving the
highest level of productivity in each experiment was promised a small monetary
award.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The participants' assignment,
which was to improve the performance of a hypothetical college's MIS
department, required partitioning into teams.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The teams' instructions included creating documentation for a software
design within two and one-half hours.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Each
team received half of the assignment's instructions, and were to share collaboratively
with the other teams (Andres & Shipps, 2010).</span></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Andres
and Shipps (2010) employed the behavioral observation approach to assess teams.
A relevant degree of training-the-observer instruction ensued with an emphasis
on fully comprehending the construct definitions and the applicable behavioral
indicators related to team learning (Andres & Shipps, 2010).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Collection of the overall team ratings
occurred midway into the appointed assignment time, and just before ending the
sessions (Andres & Shipps, 2010).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Literature reviewed by Andres & Shipps
(2010) resulted in a five-item rating scale, and use of a seven-point Likert
scale.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Agreement index between raters
was very high.</span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></b></span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Details Regarding Threats to
Validity and How Resolved</span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Andres and Shipps (2010) examined
"internal consistency reliability, convergent validity, and discriminant
validity of the construct measurements (and calculated) the construct’s
composite reliabilities (CR) and the average variance extracted (AVE)" (p.
217).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Both constructs' reliability
scores were above the 0.70 benchmark.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">t</i>-statistic loadings
demonstrated internal reliability and item convergent validity (Andres &
Shipps, 2010).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The AVE square roots
confirmed discriminant validity via correlation between team learning and
"interaction quality latent variables" (Andres & Shipps, 2010, p.
217).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Consequently, the
"measurement model displayed discriminant validity" (Andres &
Shipps, 2010, p. 217), and the a<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">greement
index between raters was very high.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Andres and Shipps (2010) </span>produced a research project that compels
peers to accept their findings due to the validity anchored in their
procedures, and the reliability of the methodology used. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Andres and Shipps (2010) made no mention of obtaining
approval through an Institutional Review Board (IRB) for their study.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>If approval was not sought and approved, the
study by Andres and Shipps (2010) would be non-compliant.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Non-compliance also "compromises the
integrity and validity of the research" (U.S. Department of </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">Health and Human Services</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">,
2006, p. 5).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>More important than the loss
of potential contribution from the study would be the potential harm to the
participants caused by confidentiality issues and so forth.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In addition, Andres and Shipps (2010) noted
that a payment and course credits were to be provided to participants.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>If IRB approval was not gained prior to the
study, such incentives could be construed as undue inducement (U.S. Department
of Health and Human Services, 2006).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>If
an IRB application was not done because the researchers believed that their
study was exempt cannot be assumed since there was no mention of an IRB. <span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Findings from Research and
Implications</span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">The
results of the study by Andres and Shipps (2010) revealed that the "collaboration
mode can impact team information exchange…interpretation, and task outcomes"
(p. 213). <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In addition, the greater the success
of a team's collaboration, the more successful are the resulting social
structures, which achieves significant task outcomes (Andres & Shipps,
2010).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A partial least squares (PLS)
analysis supported the hypotheses.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As
collaboration increased team learning so did productivity and quality of the
teams' interactions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Apparently, working
on tasks face-to-face rather than through online collaboration resulted in
fewer problems with "communication breakdowns, misunderstandings, and
difficulty moving forward with task execution" (Andres & Shipps, 2010,
p. 219).</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Andres
and Shipps (2010) reported a consensus that technology-mediated collaboration
included contexts of both technological and societal elements.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Technological elements enable an execution of
procedural and technical tasks.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Societal
elements allow for psychological task accomplishments.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Therefore, both the technological and societal
elements provide the most impact for teams to participate, cooperate, and
reflect (Andres & Shipps, 2010).</span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">A Research Study on Promotion of
Cross-Cultural Awareness in Preservice Instructors</span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Understanding the critical elements
of academically grounded research contributes to the adoption and application
of best practices.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In anticipation of
teaching post-secondary online students in business or education curricula,
staying up-to-date on evolving learning technologies, strategies, and
applications requires expertise in evaluating peer-reviewed literature.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Consequently, a review of research
methodologies pertinent to the aforementioned specialization follows.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
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<span><strong><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">Th</span>e Research Problem, Questions, or
Hypotheses</strong></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Malewski,
Sharma, and Phillion (2012) presented a study using preservice instructors as a
means to examine endorsement of cross-cultural awareness.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Research questions included </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">(1) "How do <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">international field experiences prepare preservice teachers to teach in
diverse settings?, (2) What are the pedagogical implications of increased
cultural awareness among preservice teachers for classroom practice?, and (3) How
do international field experiences open preservice teachers to future
opportunities to explore and work in culturally diverse communities?" (Malewski,
Sharma, & Phillion, 2012, p. 1).</span></span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">The Research Purpose </span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">The research purpose noted by </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Malewski,
Sharma, and Phillion (2012) was to address important cross-cultural concerns
relative to preparing preservice teachers to practice in "culturally and
linguistically diverse classrooms" (p. 1).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Malewski et al. (2012) expected that the study would include an
international trip.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Furthermore,
Malewski et al. (2012) wanted to document each participant's cross-cultural
connection with and awareness of cultural information. </span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">The Type of Design and Elements of
the Design </span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Malewski, Sharma, and Phillion</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;"> (2012) conducted their qualitative collective case
study using 49 preservice instructors from an American university who were
participating in a Honduran field experience, which placed them in rural and urban
school systems.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>S</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">ample
demographics included 37 females and 12 males who were 97% white and 3%
biracial.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Only 3.5% spoke Spanish
fluently or with limited skill.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>D<span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">ata was gathered from "questionnaires, interviews,
focus interviews, course assignments, discussions, journal reflections, and
researchers’ observations and field notes" (Malewski, Sharma, &
Phillion, 2012, p. 2). <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Multiple data
sources required triangulation in order to ensure accuracy and reliability
before preparing and disclosing the study's findings.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Participants were given instructions to use
"re</span>flective journaling, autobiographical writing, teacher
portraits, and critical analysis of pedagogical issues" (Malewski et al.,
2012, p. 5). <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Malewski,
Sharma, and Phillion (2012) focused their study's design upon a previous
researcher's work that explored the efficacy of a collective case research
structure.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The structure included (a) an
extraordinary singular experience that required a collective investigation of a
"group of persons, places, events, issues, or problems" (Malewski,
Sharma, & Phillion, 2012, p. 11), (b) an investigation taking place at the
location of the experience, (c) a collection of extensive content-rich
information from various data sources, (d) the replication of results across
cases, and (e) an emphasis on the differences within and between cases at any
possible opportunity.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Interviews with
the participants before and after the trip assessed their knowledge of culture,
principles, and personal outlooks, which provided a picture of each participant's
experiential learning.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Several
themes materialized demonstrating mounting awareness about the impact of language
on attempts to grasp other cultures.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For
example, themes arose about the relevance of economic conditions' effects on a
culture's ability to provide education to its people and the impact upon
pedagogical comprehension related to differing degrees of understanding about
cultures. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Other themes recognized the
value for preservice teachers to receive exposure to other cultures and the
importance that other cultures play in understanding one's own cultural
viewpoints (Malewski, Sharma, & Phillion, 2012).</span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Details Regarding Threats to
Validity and How Resolved</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Malewski,
Sharma and Phillion (2012) completed a study that reviewed data from a singular
location, and indicated that their study added a significant resource for
educators despite the one area examined.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Rather than Malewskis et al.'s (2012) study providing scientific support
for the advancement of academic knowledge, their study claimed a contribution
based upon other researchers' work.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Malewski et al. (2012) appeared to claim study significance because of their
first-of-its-kind study.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Uniqueness does
not qualify validity.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The study by
Malewski et al. (2012) may help peers, but the study was uncompelling due to
the issues noted above.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Malewski,
Sharma, and Phillion (2012) explained that their study revealed themes as noted
above, which signified a collective case.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>However, the study did not address atypical cases.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Researchers who objectively or subjectively
discount cases not fitting a research parameter may substantially discredit or
eliminate data that would otherwise reveal important information such as from
atypical cases.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>In
addition, researchers must be very wary of personal opinions affecting their
data analysis.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Compromising research
validity occurs if researchers' inductive processes incorrectly eliminates
opportunities to discover good or bad findings.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Once peers review research, and detect that possible useful data was not
included in a study, the study's researchers may elicit a future wherein few pay
attention.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Adhering to scientific
methods eliminates such problems.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Findings
from Research and Implications </span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Conclusions by </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Malewski,
Sharma, and Phillion (2012) indicated that, "E<span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">xperiential learning in an international setting was key to developing
preservice teachers’ cross-cultural awareness" (p. 2). <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Expanding cultural awareness provides
preservice teachers with an otherwise unobtainable understanding and an ability
to successfully instruct culturally diverse learners (Malewski, Sharma, &
Phillion, 2012).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Sensitivity to others'
cultures enables preservice instructors with opportunities to form skills in
negotiating, interpreting, and participating with people, which enables such skills
to more effectively instruct learners.</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Malewski,
Sharma, and Phillion (2012) indicated that preservice students challenged the
"omissions, biases, and inclusions that form an ability to conceive of
cultural manifestations" (p. 35), which includes "assumptions,
values, beliefs, and attitudes" (p. 35).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Cross-cultural awareness expands when learners actively interact with
content and cultural information.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In
addition, expertise of culturally diverse learners increases due to exposure to
theories and applications (Malewski, Sharma, & Phillion, 2012).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Apparently, other researchers have not
addressed the advantages of engaging with other cultures as a means to increase
preservice teachers' cross-cultural awareness.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Consequently, the study by Malewski et al. (2012) advances knowledge
that improves educational programs for teaching students.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Supporting international field experiences provides
preservice teachers with experience and cross-cultural skills for teaching
diverse students (Malewski et al., 2012).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Such skills tremendously impact better learning outcomes as preservice
teachers begin practicing instruction of widely diverse students.</span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-pagination: none; text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">A Compelling Case Related to the Significance of Findings</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>This
section redesigns the DBR methodology presented by Bower (2011) above.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Educators must be extremely cognizant of the
methods used in academic research because instructional practices based on
faulty, incomplete, or less than ideal research methods can be extremely detrimental
to learning outcomes.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For example, Akilli
(2008) wrote that "many DBR studies lack a sound theoretical foundation,
and do not add to the literature to refine and develop the theory" (p. 3).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Some DBR researchers target a solution, and pursue
learning issues that pertain to the solution, which often causes
"under-conceptualized research" (Akilli, 2008, p. 3).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>B</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: Times-Roman;">arab and Squire (2004) remarked that r</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">ather
than identifying hypotheses, </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: Times-Roman;">DBR
looks at "multiple aspects of the design, and develops a profile that
characterizes the design in practice" (p. 4).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Akilli (2008) noted
that DBR researchers have used mixed methods to assess interventions' outcomes,
and revised interventions accordingly.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Mixed
methods warrants "objectivity, validity, credibility, and applicability of
the findings" (Akilli, 2008, p. 3) due to measurements between data.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: Times-Roman;">Bower (2011) focused upon "characterizing situations (as
opposed to controlling variables) (and) developing a profile or theory that
characterizes the design in practice (as opposed to simply testing
hypotheses)" (Barab & Squire, 2004, p. 3).</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Rather than considering a DBR design, and
implementation of instructional tools based only upon Bower's (2011) theory, DBR
is merged with a mixed methods approach.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The mixed method will positively impact the integrity of the new design because
extending its scope will overcome the "minimal ontology" (Barab &
Squire, 2004, p. 5) that DBR investigations typically represent.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Reduced doubt concerning reliability issues,
and increased confidence provides the researcher with more assurance in
offering the upgraded study to peers. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">The
Research Problem, Questions, or Hypotheses</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Although
distance education and e-learning environments began decades ago, and
technologies for online learning are vast, paradigms for best practices used in
andragogical learning continue to shift without the benefit of sound research
(Skylar, 2009).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Researchers have posited
that improved learning outcomes might be achieved by synchronous and
asynchronous web conferencing (Bower, 2011).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>However, scientific evidence prevails over theory (Skylar, 2009).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Barab and Squire (2004) wrote that convincing
others that recommendations based upon DBR are trustworthy, valid, and reliable
is achievable by applying a qualitative research method. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Scientific research augments current theories
regarding the benefit of web conferencing for e-learners.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>By converging DBR with a qualitative research
method, assertions are supportable, and limitations dramatically reduced. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The research questions include (1) Does
synchronous and asynchronous web conferencing affect e-learners' performance?,
and (2) Does synchronous and asynchronous web conferencing affect e-learners'
satisfaction?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The study's four hypotheses
are:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; tab-stops: .5in 58.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">H1</i>: <span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Employing
web conferencing in a synchronous e-learning environment improves <span style="mso-tab-count: 3;"> </span>learning performance.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; tab-stops: .5in 58.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">H2</i>:<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Employing web conferencing in an asynchronous
e-learning environment improves <span style="mso-tab-count: 3;"> </span>learning
performance.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; tab-stops: .5in 58.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">H3</i>:<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Employing web conferencing in a synchronous e-learning
environment increases <span style="mso-tab-count: 3;"> </span>learners'
satisfaction.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; tab-stops: .5in 58.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"></span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">H4</i>:<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Employing web conferencing in an asynchronous
e-learning environment increases <span style="mso-tab-count: 3;"> </span>learners'
satisfaction. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">The
Research Purpose </span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-pagination: none;">
<span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The purpose of the mixed methods
research project is to determine if, during synchronous and asynchronous web
conferencing, learners' performance and satisfaction does or does not
improve.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Literature revealed that many DBR
researchers have disregarded electing a mixed methods research design.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This project provides an opportunity for DBR
researchers to examine the research methods discussed below, which unlike the DBR
method, supports "objectivity, validity, credibility, and applicability of
the findings" (Akilli, 2008, p. 3) due to data convergence.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-pagination: none; text-align: center;">
<span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"><strong>Th</strong></span><strong>e Type of Design and Elements of
the Design </strong></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Intra-method
mixing using concurrent analysis of the qualitative data from questionnaires
and interviewing ensures data convergence (Akilli, 2008).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Ninety online students from an undergraduate
marketing class at three state-administered universities in Syracuse, New York,
represent the study's sample.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The design
of four six-week classes running concurrently are designated as Class One and
Class Two.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Fifteen students participate from
each university alternating one time between both classes.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Classes consist of a synchronous web conferencing
learning platform, and an asynchronous web conferencing learning platform.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Examining data from the two classes should
demonstrate performance and satisfaction related to each learning scenario if
the pretest and posttest data is compared separately for participant learners
and researchers.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>An
IRB application is to be submitted at the researcher's university, which is one
of the three state-run universities noted above before any contact is made with
the participants.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Two research peers from
the other two universities are contributing members of the research team.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>All participants will be advised about the
study's parameters after the IRB is approved.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>All
students are registered, and log into the portal for both online courses at the
appropriate time.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The management
information services department who maintains the server for the three colleges
and the research team pretest the two courses.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The asynchronous class uses a WebCT course management system to collect
data from a pretest and posttest using Scantron technologies to score (a) learners'
and researcher participants' proficiencies, and (b) an end-of-class student
satisfaction survey that uses open and closed questions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The synchronous class uses the Elluminate
Live<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> </i>course management system. The
research team also conducts an Elluminate Live<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> </i>pretest to assess students' proficiencies, and each student
undergoes a posttest and satisfaction survey.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The
research team is to assess and code the survey's open-ended questions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Thirty per cent of the tests will be randomly
chosen and manually scored to ensure the reliability of the scores.<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></b>Scores
from the two learning environments' pretest will be compared to posttest scores
to assess changes in proficiency of the participant learners and
researchers.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The scores from the
satisfaction survey will compare the learners' levels of approval.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>IBMs SPSS software was chosen to run all data
for the concurrent analysis. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The
study's procedures will provide a repetitive series of "theory-based
analysis, design, and testing" (Bower, 2011, p. 67).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The "naturalistic contexts" (Luo,
2011, p. 5) extracted from the study triangulates the DBR information with the formative
evaluative qualitative data potentially resulting in a new learning model.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Capturing the operational variables from the
data collected in both classes, and from the participant researchers provides
an effect range between the students' and researchers' competencies.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>M</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%; mso-fareast-font-family: Times-Roman;">ultiple dependent variables include "climate variables (e.g.,
collaboration among learners, available resources), outcome variables (e.g.,
learning of content, transfer), and system variables (e.g., dissemination,
sustainability)" (Barab & Squire, 2004, p. 4).</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></span></b><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Amiel and Reeves
(2008) wrote that design-based research in combination with qualitative
research produces "evidence-based outcomes" (p. 37) because the
convergence results in engaged research.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Therefore, engaged research produces evidence-based outcomes.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Answering the research questions will be
possible because analysis of the data described above provides an ability to
accept or not accept each hypothesis.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Luo
(2011) wrote that "relevant and quality research on educational technology
must do more than simply present empirical findings on how well a technology
application worked, but should also be able to interpret why it worked"
(p. 3).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Achieving a contribution to
learning is possible due to (a) a much more robust research methodology than
DBR alone because a mixed methods research design will be employed, (b) designing
assessments to provide the research team with the reasons that each learning
platform was beneficial to learning and satisfaction (process to outcome
analysis), (c) the research methodology supporting the validity of the findings,
and (d) data interpretations that will focus upon explaining why the
synchronous and asynchronous LMSs improved or did not improve proficienies.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In addition, data from both classes will
support recommendations to improve learning, instructor training, and
satisfaction. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-pagination: none; text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;">Conclusion</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-pagination: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The essay prepared above presented two
sections. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The first section examined
empirical research methodologies as well as the conclusions presented by
scholarly researchers.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The second section presented a design to converge the
qualitative research method with DBR, which was discussed by Bower (2011).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Analyzing the research methods in the first
section, and designing a research project in the second section provided an
opportunity to apply new research information.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The analyses improved upon research skills required for future projects,
and a more developed ability to evaluate best practices before implementing
them into instructional strategies.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p> </o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-pagination: none; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">References:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Akilli, G.K. (2008, February). <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Design-based research vs. mixed methods: The differences and commonalities</i>. Retrieved from </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><a href="http://it.coe.uga.edu/itforum/paper110/Akilli_DBR">http://it.coe.uga.edu/itforum/paper110/Akilli_DBR</a></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>_vs_MM_ITForum.pdf<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">
Amiel, T., & Reeves, T.C. (2008). Design-based research and educational
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in preservice teachers through experiential learning: Findings from a six-year collective case study. <i>Teachers
College Record</i><span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">, </span>(114)8, 1-44. Retrieved from
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Sandoval,
W. & Bell, P. (2004).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Design-based
research methods for studying learning in context:
Introduction. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Educational Psychologist,
(39)</i>4, 199–201. Retrieved </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">from
<a href="http://www.lopezlearning.net/files/14963084Sandoval-Bell_Article-1.pdf">http://www.lopezlearning.net/files/14963084Sandoval-Bell_Article-1.pdf</a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Skylar,
A.A. (2009, Fall). A comparison of asynchronous online text-based lectures and synchronous interactive web
conferencing lectures. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Issues in Teacher
Education</i>, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">(18)</i>2, <span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>69-84. Retrieved from
<a href="http://www1.chapman.edu/ITE/public_html/ITEFall09/09skylar.pdf">http://www1.chapman.edu/ITE/public_html/ITEFall09/</a></span><a href="http://www1.chapman.edu/ITE/public_html/ITEFall09/09skylar.pdf"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">09skylar.pdf</span></a> <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><span style="display: none; mso-hide: all;">Press the Escape key to close </span></span></o:p></span></div>
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Tanner, J.R., <a href="http://search.proquest.com.proxy1.ncu.edu/pqrl/indexinglinkhandler/sng/au/Noser,+Thomas+C/$N?accountid=28180" title="Click to search for more items by this author"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Noser, T.C</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">., & </span><a href="http://search.proquest.com.proxy1.ncu.edu/pqrl/indexinglinkhandler/sng/au/Totaro,+Michael+W/$N?accountid=28180" title="Click to search for more items by this author"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Totaro, M.W</span></a><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">. (Spring 2009): <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Business faculty and undergraduate students'
perceptions of online learning: A comparative study. <span><em>Journal of Information <span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Systems Education, (20)</em></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">1, 29-40. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com.proxy1. ncu.<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">edu/docview/200167163?accountid=28180<o:p></o:p></span> </span></span></span><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";"></span></div>
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<span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2006, March). <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Guidance
for clinical trial sponsors: Establishment
and operation of clinical trial data monitoring committees.</span></i><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Retrieved
from </span><a href="http://www.fda.gov/downloads/RegulatoryInformation/Guidances/ucm127073.pdf">http://www.fda.gov/downloads/RegulatoryInformation/Guidances/</a></span><a href="http://www.fda.gov/downloads/RegulatoryInformation/Guidances/ucm127073.pdf"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif";">ucm127073.pdf</span></a><o:p></o:p></div>
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Deborah L. Popovicihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00026428885357985185noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5648944957694608174.post-57878376778641388472012-12-05T16:49:00.001-05:002012-12-16T13:57:40.279-05:00Applying Learning Theories to Guide Instructional Practice<br />
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Applying
Theory and Research<o:p> </o:p></div>
<br />
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<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The
following presents findings extracted from scholarly works that address
learning theories' applications for resolving worldwide dilemmas related to
human-welfare issues.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Human-welfare
issues relate to societies, cultures, ethics, economies, governance, and
communications. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The information from
existing research answers the manner in which learning theories guide
instructional strategies for post-secondary e-learning.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Also included are examples of learning
theories applied within learning environments, and assessments of the
appropriateness of those theories.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<br />
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Applying Learning
Theories to Guide Instructional Practice</b></div>
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<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Christensen
(2008) wrote that every learning setting includes learning goals that require
instructional strategies specifically focused toward achieving each goal.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Consequently, each goal requires one or more learning
theories tied to learning strategies.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Organizing
the dozens of learning theories into succinct categories aids an instructor's
decision-making required for each learning setting.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Christensen (2008) explained that four
categories aid instructors in designing teaching activities as each learning
setting arises.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The "behavioral,
information processing, psychological/individual constructivist, and
social/situated constructivist views" (Christensen, 2008, p. 27) represent
such categories.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<br />
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<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>An
example of an instructor's learning theory selection process for guiding
students in solving a problem related to a current societal issue may combine
the social constructivist and behaviorist learning theories (Christensen,
2008).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Combining these theories presents
learning activities wherein students co-construct knowledge via learning teams,
and the instructor uses motivational strategies from the behaviorist theory in
connection to the learning activities by providing extra points for exceptional
teamwork (Christensen, 2008).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<br />
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<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Christensen
(2008) provided insight regarding designing instruction based upon one or more
instructional issues such as training, preparation, and education.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The appropriate learning theories for
training learners who need improvement or an upgrade in computer skills could use
Bloom's mastery learning model, Skinner's program instruction, or Keller's personalized
systems of instruction (Christensen, 2008).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Combining theories to transition learners from training to preparation
provides instructors with an opportunity to teach learners "critical
prerequisite concepts necessary for performing a job" (Christensen, 2008,
p. 30).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Applying learning theories such
as "Ausubel's meaningful reception learning or Gagné's theory of instruction"
(Christensen, 2008, p. 30) supports this transition.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<br />
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<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Finally,
if the instructional problem requires further learning, such as working
cooperatively in teams while solving work problems, learning theories added to
the previous two stages could include "Schank's goal-based scenarios,
Savery and Duffy's problem-based learning, or Michaelsen's team-based learning"
(Christensen, 2008, p. 30). <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The
instructor includes considerations of "time, cost, and contextual
constraints" (Christensen, 2008, p. 30).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>By selecting theories that can achieve maximum learning, achievement of instructional
goals<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>increases exponentially. </div>
<br />
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<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>A
study by Hamat and Embi (2010) indicates that the constructivist learning
theory represents the philosophy applicable to a set of several learning
theories.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>From a learner's perspective,
the set involves constructing knowledge.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>From an instructor's perspective, the set requires supporting learners
as knowledge is constructed.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The four
principles embodying constructivism explain that learners' interfaces with the
environment and experiences provide deconstruction and
reconstruction of the learning matter using "assimilation and accommodation"
(Hamat & Embi, 2010, p. 238). <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As
learners accommodate the reconstruction process, a "higher level theory or
logic" (Hamat & Embi, 2010, p. 238) occurs.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Constructivism's third principle explains
that student learning derives via "investigation, predicting, imagining,
manipulation of information and invention" (Hamat & Embi, 2010, p.
238). <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Reflection occurring during the
development of learner's constructs focuses upon resolving conflicts (Hamat
& Embi, 2010). <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<br />
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Important Issues Attributable
to Applying Learning Theories to Practice</b></div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Nworie
and Haughton (2008) remarked that online instruction has posed new issues for
teachers due to disruptions from learning caused by "instant messaging,
computer games, web surfing, and personal projects" (p. 52), which adversely
impacts an effective application of learning theories.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Furthermore, instructors, and students
develop technological skills at varying levels.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Even as instructor's intentions for improving learning via new and
quickly changing technologies persist, such changes impede rather than construct
learning. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The
Law of Unintended Consequences explains that unexpected effects that accompany
change cause unanticipated negative or positive results (Nworie & Haughton,
2008).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The introduction of new
e-learning tools cause such effects.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Unanticipated
results caused by "ignorance, error, immediacy, basic values, and
self-defeating prophecy" (Nworie & Haughton, 2008, p. 54) arise from
instructors who fail to fully examine and comprehend the implications of using
new technologies.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Consequently,
sustained by standard operating procedures, instructors roll out previously
used teaching strategies without allowing for disruptions to learning
theories.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Not reflecting upon possible
unintended consequences marginalizes learning.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>As instructors increasingly convert teaching strategies to the online
class, budgeting restrictions and development creates new issues that require
revisions in the selection of appropriate learning theories (Nworie & Haughton,
2008).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Evolution conflicts with
sensitive equilibriums inherent within instructional systems and processes.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></span>Gijbels,
Segers, and Struyf (2008) <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">investigated
if a constructivist learning episode shifted learners into deeper learning</span>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In addition, Gijbels et al. (2008) examined
students' perceptions of increasing assessment demands.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Learners were differentiated by either a
restricted or variable learning approach (Gijbels, Segers, & Struyf, 2008),
which impacted transitions to higher or lower surface learning.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The study by Gijbels et al. (2008) disclosed
that increased deep learning was not achieved in a "constructivist
learning and assessment environment" (p. 435).</div>
<br />
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<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Specifically, the restricted learning
approach demonstrated a low variability in both deep and surface learning
attributes.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Conversely, the variable
group demonstrated high variability in deep and surface learning attributes. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Therefore, the depth of learning approaches
was affected by learners' perceptibility, and limited an ability to change
learning approaches.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The constructivist
learning theory states that knowledge is actively constructed by the learner. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Apparently, instructors should consider the
study by Gijbels, Segers, and Struyf (2008) before applying the constructivist
learning theory because inconsistent deep learning arises during active
knowledge construction. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">However, there is one caveat for instructors
to consider, which is that Gijbels et al. (2008) suggested that their study's
results needed further examination to strengthen validity.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Snyder
(2010) taps into the impact that constructivism bears upon instructional-design
theories, which guides the selection of instructional methods.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Instructors who present "authentic
learning scenarios and problems" (Snyder, 2010, p. 50) to learners proffer
new information.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The new information merges
with learners' current understanding and experiences, and results in knowledge
construction. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Presenting authentic
learning is by no means easily mastered, and some instructors are more
challenged than others.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Therefore,
"meaningful and transferable learning" (Snyder, 2010, p. 50) occurs
at varying degrees from little to nearly limitless amounts.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In addition to the challenges faced by
instructors, students at various levels in the construction process act
differently to new knowledge and fail to resolve "physical, mental, or
social dissonance" (Snyder, 2010, p. 50).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Skilled instructors sense such breakdowns in knowledge creation, and can
anticipate and provide supportive information to prevent such issues.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Because students require improved electronic proficiencies
to create solutions to the growing number of complex problems, an instructor's
responsibility for recognizing, researching, and devising methods that enrich
learners' constructive processes continues to increase.</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><o:p> </o:p></span></div>
<br />
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Examples of the
Constructivist Learning Theory Applied</b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><o:p> </o:p></b></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none;">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Gijbels,
Segers, and Struyf (2008) tested previous researchers' empirical work in a
non-constructivist learning environment.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The previous work concentrated upon students' intended and actual
approaches to learning as new assessment methods were integrated (Gijbels,
Segers, & Struyf, 2008).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The study
intention of Gijbels et al. (2008) focused upon determining if a constructivist
learning environment for education students altered learning approaches when provided
with assessment requirements. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Apparently,
a commonly accepted concept by instructors explained that students employ
"surface and deep approaches" (Gijbels et al., 2008, p. 432) according
to assessment demands. </div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-outline-level: 2; mso-pagination: none;">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>A description of the methodology
used by Gijbels, Segers, and Struyf (2008) included an instructional goals-linked
constructivist learning environment that blended active learning with
assessments that provided the students with "guided self-study, activating
lectures, two authentic group assignments, and two individual assignments"
(p. 435).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Because the essay's focus is
presenting application of the constructivist learning theory, the study
findings by Gijbels et al. (2008) note only that learners do not change
learning approaches toward deeper learning.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>In addition, the article represented examples of the manner in which the
constructivist learning theory was applied during an empirical research
project.</div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-outline-level: 2; mso-pagination: none;">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Gijbels, Segers, and Struyf (2008) recommended
that instructors reflect upon learners' variability in learning approaches
before using the constructivist theory.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>For example, Gijbels et al. (2008) suggested that learners may require
extra time to become accommodated to learning approaches, which provides a
buffer so that instructors can aid learners in adapting.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In response to the need for a buffer,
Lucariello (2012) suggested initiatives to instructors rolling out new learning
concepts and theories.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For example,
instructors' initiatives should provide learning opportunities that students
perceive as "plausible, high-quality, intelligible, and generative"
(Lucariello, 2012, para. 3).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Group discussions
require learners' access to personal knowledge during the preparation of verbal
responses (Lucariello, 2012).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Other initiatives
included "model-based reasoning, diverse instruction, raising student
metacognition, and epistemological thinking" (Lucariello, 2012, para. 3). </div>
<br />
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<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Koohang, Riley, Smith, and Schreurs (2009)
presented three components of constructivism in an e-learning model, which
warrants a review due to the article focusing upon teaching business students
online, which is part of the aforementioned </span>specialization.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Koohang et al. (2009) presented several
examples of their model in practice, and summarized 18 characteristics of the
constructivist theory.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">The model's three constructivist components
included the "design of learning activities, learning assessments, and
instructor's roles" (Koohang, Riley, Smith, & Schreurs, 2009, p.
94).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Designing learning activities
referred to elements that embodied fundamental and collaborative designs
espousing learning activities such as "</span>collaboration, cooperation,
multiple perspectives, real world examples, scaffolding, self-reflection,
multiple representations of ideas, and social negotiation" (Koohan, <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Riley, Smith, & Schreurs, 2009, </span>p.
94)<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Instructors explained to learners that using </span>"experiences
and/or knowledge" (Koohang et al., 2009, p. 95) encouraged
"interrelatedness and interdisciplinary learning" (Koohang et al.,
2009, p. 95).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Consequently, the learning
situation challenged learners to assimilate new knowledge that additionally
pushed learners beyond their comfort levels (Koohang et al., 2009). <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The second component referred to
elements explained as the learning assessment, which </span>advocated assessments
for the "instructor, learner collaboration, and self" (<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Koohang, Riley, Smith, & Schreurs, 2009,
p. 94). </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The third component portrayed
as instructor's roles included <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>"coaching,
guiding, mentoring, acknowledging, providing feedback, and assessing student
learning" (<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Koohang et al., 2009,
p. 94). </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The students
participating in the study by Koohang, <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Riley,
Smith, and Schreurs (2009) </span>were not informed of the model's use although
feedback to students encompassed all components of their model.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Withholding the model's information could
imply that Koohang's et al. (2009) team wanted responses driven by the learners
rather than the learners attempting to second guess what the instructor might
be seeking.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none;">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>One of the
assignments designed by Koohang, <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Riley,
Smith, and Schreurs (2009) included an </span>assignment for the e-learning
business students.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Specifically, the
assignment stipulated that learners investigate an actual knowledge management
(KM) business.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Learners were required to
investigate the online company's management and "improve its key
performance indicators such as page views, server load, network traffic, and
transactions per second" (Koohang <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Riley,
Smith, & Schreurs, 2009</span>, p. 96).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The instructor communicated the reading and writing assignment to the
students, which required "clear, concise, and persuasive" (Koohang et
al., 2009, p. 103) responses. </div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none;">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Santally
et al. (2012) questioned if e-learning could evolve with constructivism (a.k.a.
socio-constructivism) as a new paradigmatic learning framework, and discussed
possible implications for teaching and learning applications.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Santally et al. (2012) proffered principles
for designing a learning system grounded in the constructivist learning theory that
included:</div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none;">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>L<span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">earning (that) should be internally
controlled and mediated by the learner…(focusing) <span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>on realistic approaches to (solve) real-world problems…fostering
reflective practice… <span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>…presenting
authentic tasks…(enabling) context-and content dependent knowledge construction…(and) supporting
collaborative construction of knowledge through social negotiation.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(p. 13)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none;">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Santally's
et al. (2012) project confirmed the application of the principles noted above.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For example, participants' remarks revealed (a)
controlled learning; (b) that the design and teaching approaches sustained
learners' focus by embracing "realistic and…creative approaches"
(Santally et al., 2012, p. 13); (c) that learning journals demonstrated levels
of efficiency and effectiveness that cultivated deep, reflective thinking; and (d)
that authentic learning tools supported learning and application of new
knowledge in various learning scenarios, such as in discussion forums and
Facebook.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none;">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Peng, Su,
Chou, and Tsai (2009) attempted to conceptualize a constructivist framework for
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>wireless mobile learning (m-learning).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Technologies have emerged as
"intellectual partners, or mind tool(s)" (Peng, Su, Chou, & Tsai,
2009, p. 179) that augment constructive learning.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For example, learners increasingly choose
e-tools and other electronic devices according to their potential learning
value.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Also, potential learning values
materialize as learners take advantage of accessing the Internet from any place
at anytime with ever-increasing numbers of people and resources.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The most important impact upon knowledge
construction that m-learning provides that differs from wired technologies includes
"convenience, expediency, and immediacy" (Peng et al., 2009, p.
174).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Learners and instructors alike are
increasingly challenged to learn as much and as quickly as possible how to maximize
the utility of m-tools for knowledge construction.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none;">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Martens, <a href="http://search.proquest.com.proxy1.ncu.edu/pqrl/indexinglinkhandler/sng/au/Bastiaens,+Theo/$N?accountid=28180" title="Click to search for more items by this author"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Bastiaens, </span></a>and Kirschner
(2007) discussed the pressures from "constructivism, information, and
communications technology on learning" (p. 81).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A study by Martens et al. (2007) using a constructivist
e-learning environment (CEE) involved comparing the learning expectations of
the study's developers to students' actual learning experiences.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The developers expected that if students were
provided with a badly constructed assignment, students would be motivated to
re-interpret the assignment, and in so doing, develop the skills required to
find solutions (Martens, Bastiaens, & Kirschner, 2007).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Instead, students easily reconstructed the
assignment, and unchallenged, found solutions using surface thinking.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Consequently, the developers wrongly
anticipated students' reactions to the assignment although the students
appreciated the challenge.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; tab-stops: .5in;">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Martens,
<a href="http://search.proquest.com.proxy1.ncu.edu/pqrl/indexinglinkhandler/sng/au/Bastiaens,+Theo/$N?accountid=28180" title="Click to search for more items by this author"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Bastiaens, </span></a>and <a href="http://search.proquest.com.proxy1.ncu.edu/pqrl/indexinglinkhandler/sng/au/Kirschner,+Paul+A/$N?accountid=28180" title="Click to search for more items by this author"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Kirschner (2007) </span></a>concluded
that although CEEs are used for generic students, instructors and researchers
need to be more cognizant of the combined effects from learners'
"characteristics, study outcomes, and appreciation of CEEs" (p.
90).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Developers and instructors must
additionally acknowledge that an activity may seem to align with the
constructivist theory when learners' perceptions of the activity does not align
with the theory's activity.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Students'
learning outcomes cannot be successful if a CCE does not assist learners in visualizing
a bridge for constructing new knowledge.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span></div>
<br />
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Appropriate Uses of the Constructivist Learning Theory</b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><o:p> </o:p></b></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-outline-level: 2; mso-pagination: none;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Gijbels,
Segers, and Struyf (2008) suggested their study's results needed re-examination
to strengthen validity because their study was the first of its kind.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Gijbels et al. (2008) found that e</span>xecuting constructivist learning, and an assessment environment
did not result in students employing a deep learning approach.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>By not presenting an activity that challenged
learners, most students used surface learning techniques, which did not
motivate learners to construct new knowledge for problem-solving.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Gijbels et al. (2008) additionally found that
if students did not perceive that an activity and its assessment was difficult,
knowledge construction was impaired.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Consequently,
Gijbels et al. (2008) did not sufficiently apply the constructivist learning
theory, which resulted in learners not constructing new knowledge.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-outline-level: 2; mso-pagination: none;">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The study by <a href="http://search.proquest.com.proxy1.ncu.edu/pqrl/indexinglinkhandler/sng/au/Martens,+Rob/$N?accountid=28180" title="Click to search for more items by this author"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Martens, </span></a><a href="http://search.proquest.com.proxy1.ncu.edu/pqrl/indexinglinkhandler/sng/au/Bastiaens,+Theo/$N?accountid=28180" title="Click to search for more items by this author"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Bastiaens, and</span></a> <a href="http://search.proquest.com.proxy1.ncu.edu/pqrl/indexinglinkhandler/sng/au/Kirschner,+Paul+A/$N?accountid=28180" title="Click to search for more items by this author"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Kirschner (2007) </span></a>somewhat
mirrored the study by Gijbels, Segers, and Struyf (2008) because learners'
perceptions impacted their research project.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Martens et al. (2007) did not appropriately apply the constructivist
learning theory as seen in their unsuccessful attempt to use the theory to
activate construction of learner's knowledge.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Research projects frequently ask questions that require purposely
testing hypotheses using learning theories.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>As a means to conduct a test, unexpected coincidental results may
occur.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, in the case of the
research project by Martens et al. (2007), the study's unexpected outcome was
due to failure in addressing generally accepted concepts known about the
constructivist learning theory.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Martens
et al. (2007) did not design their activity fervently enough to motivate the
students because the team relied upon their perceptions instead of the students'
perceptions.</div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-outline-level: 2; mso-pagination: none;">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The article by Koohang, <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Riley, Smith, and Schreurs </span>(2009)
discussed above noted that the intention of the writers was to use students'
feedback for their study.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Appropriately,
the writers filed paperwork to an IRB, and the IRB approved the project's
application as written.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The application provided
a process to assure the study's participants that their answers would be confidential.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Koohang et al. (2009) accomplished a sound
literary review, which supported the constructivist theory's principles within
their model. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, Koohang et al. (2009)
did not include literature that contradicted or challenged the authors'
findings.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Researchers have an obligation
to present unsupportive literature as much as supportive literature.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-outline-level: 2; mso-pagination: none;">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"></span><br />
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Koohang, <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Riley, Smith, and Schreurs </span>(2009) noted
that their model was designed and presented in an earlier work by Koohang.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The model was applied in each case study presented
in Koohang et al. (2009).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A wise
recommendation by Koohang et al. (2009) included that other researchers test
their model to determine if the model could be improved.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, Koohang et al. (2009) did not
recommend an empirical study by other researchers, which would test the model's
reliability and validity.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Because
Koohang et al. (2009) mentioned that the design of the model occurred before his
team performed the case studies, this writer takes an objection to Koohang et
al. (2009) retrofitting the students' feedback to the model's conceptual
theories, which included the constructivist learning theory.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-outline-level: 2; mso-pagination: none;">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>By retrofitting participants'
feedback to a research model, some researchers could choose to modify feedback
to fit their desired research outcomes.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>In fact, others less familiar with the model may have accepted that the
design represented an "advantage (when used) in e-leaning environments"
(Koohang, <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Riley, Smith, & Schreurs,
2009, </span>p. 92).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Koohang, <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Riley, Smith, and Schreurs </span>(2009) fitted
feedback to the model.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Subsequently,
Koohang et al. (2009) declared that the model integrated all of the
constructivism elements because feedback referred to each element.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Koohang et al.'s (2009) retrofitting probably
biased the study, and invalidated the study's findings.</div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-outline-level: 2; mso-pagination: none;">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Curious if Koohang had conducted an
empirical study after the 2009 article, the author responded to an inquiry on
November 1, 2012.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Indeed, Koohang
published another article but did not conduct a scientific study of his
model.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Instead, Koohang's purpose in his
2012 article was to advance concepts relative to the learning model presented
in his previous 2009 article (Koohang, 2012).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Koohang (2012) indicated that the model was tested twice since 2009 and would
be published in 2012.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Four years post
the model's introduction, instructors employing the model by Koohang, <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Riley, Smith, and Schreurs (2009) </span>may
already know if the model helps or hurts learning.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none;">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Santally
et al. (2012) based recommendations upon a wealth of literature but did not
include a scientific test of their model.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Remarks by Santally et al. (2012) indicated their learning model provided
"a new dimension to the conception of online distance learning courses"
(p. 13).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, the claim by Santally
et al. (2012) is concerning because they sought to dispel criticism rather than
conduct an empirical study that may have supported their integrated learning
model.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>If Santally et al. (2012) chose
not to do an empirical study because they sensed such a study would not support
their model, questionable ethical behavior could exist.</div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none;">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The
article by Santally et al. (2012) discussed two e-learning methodologies useful
for achieving productive learning outcomes.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Santally et al. (2012) combined methodologies with e-tools such as an
"e-book approach, rapid e-learning techniques, and online activity-based
instructional design" (p. 13). <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Santally
et al. (2012) remarked that (a) constructivist supporters thought that the
e-book learning approach merely dumps more information onto the electronic
global information network rather than adding value to learning, and (b) rapid
e-learning reduces interactions between the instructor and learner.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none;">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The
differences between the first and second teaching method is that the first
model presents learning resources such as "e-books, interactive quizzes,
and exercises" (Santally et al., 2012, p. 10) for use in completing individual
or group assignments.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The second model progressively
adds resources relevant to the activities, and includes a more active instructor
role. Both teaching methods employed constructivist principles that supported
learner control, focused upon authentic problems needing reflection and
resolution, provided "context and content dependent knowledge
construction" (Santally et al., 2012, p. 10) while working with other
learners.</div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none;">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Santally
et al. (2012) remarked that his approach created a new paradigm for e-learning
that addresses criticisms of learning platforms, and provides a focus on the "educational
transaction" (p. 13).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Unfortunately
for the reader, Santally et al. (2012) did not scientifically test their
proposed methods.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Because Santally et al. (2012) failed to test
their proposed models, judgment of their models' value is untenable.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none;">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Peng, Su,
Chou, and Tsai (2009) discussed a constructivist framework for wireless mobile
learning (m-learning).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Technologies, in
general, have emerged as "intellectual partners, or mindtool(s)"
(Peng, Su, Chou, & Tsai, 2009, p. 179) that augment constructive
learning.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For example, learners and
instructors increasingly choose e-tools and other electronic devices according
to their potential learning value (Peng et al., 2009).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Significant learning materializes as learners
take advantage of accessing the Internet from any place at anytime with
ever-increasing numbers of people (Peng et al., 2009).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none;">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Apparently,
the most important effect from m-learning that differs from wired technologies
relative to constructing knowledge are "convenience, expediency, and
immediacy" (Peng, Su, Chou, & Tsai, 2009, p. 174).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Learners and instructors alike are
increasingly challenged to learn quickly and completely as well as adapt the
processes required of knowledge construction that maximize the utility of
m-tools.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Other emerging challenges
include competing learning technologies that confuse students and instructors
alike, depletion of the available time for learning, and depression of
instructor-activated creativity as learning activities are designed (Peng et
al., 2009).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none;">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Peng, Su,
Chou, and Tsai (2009) suggested that researchers interested in investigating
the efficacy of advancing technologies such as m-learning to enlighten
constructivist learning environments use their article's information.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>There are countless numbers of such articles
that summarize others' works, and propose new concepts.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, without including a scientific study
to test the reliability and validity of conceptual recommendations, using such
a recommendation is difficult.</div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-no-proof: yes;">Conclusion</span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-no-proof: yes;"><o:p> </o:p></span></b></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-pagination: none;">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Exploring
the application of learning theories in scholarly works leads to new
discoveries for resolving worldwide dilemmas related to human-welfare issues.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>These issues include problems related to
societies, cultures, ethics, economies, governments, and communications. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The information from existing research
answered the manner in which learning theories guided instructional strategies
for post-secondary e-learning.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Also
included were examples of learning theories applied within learning
environments, and assessments of the appropriateness of those theories.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-pagination: none;">
<o:p>Re</o:p>ferences:<o:p></o:p></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-pagination: none; text-align: left;">
Al-Huneidi, A.M.,
& Schreurs, J. (2012). Constructivism based blended learning in higher education. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">International Journal of Emerging Technologies in <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Learning, (</span>7)</i>, 4-9.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.3991%2Fijet.v7i1.1792"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">doi:10.3991/ijet.v7i1.1792</span></a></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-pagination: none; tab-stops: .5in;">
Christensen, T.K. (2008, April).
The role of theory in instructional design: Some views of an ID practitioner. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Performance Improvement, </span>(47),
</i>425-32. Retrieved from <a href="http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pfi.199/pdf">http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pfi.199/pdf</a></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-pagination: none;">
Gijbels, D.,
Segers, M., & Struyf, E. (2008). Constructivist learning environments and
the (im)possibility
to change students’ perceptions of assessment demands and approaches to <span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>learning. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Instructional
Science, 36</i>, 431–443. doi:10.1007/s11251-008-9064-7<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-pagination: none;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/null" name="Result_10">Hamat, A.,& Embi, M.A. (2010, October). Constructivism in
the design of online <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">learning</span> tools. </a><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">European Journal of Educational Studies, (2)</i>3, 237-246. Retrieved
from<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> <a href="http://ozelacademy.com/EJES_v2n3_7.pdf">h</a></span><a href="http://ozelacademy.com/EJES_v2n3_7.pdf"><a href="http://ozelacademy/">ttp://ozelacademy</a>.com/EJES_v2n3_7.pdf</a></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Harris, K.R.,
& Alexander, P.A. (1998). Integrated, Constructivist education: Challenge
and reality. </span><i>Educational
Psychology Review, 10</i><span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">(2), 115-127.
doi: </span><a href="http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1022169018926">http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1022169018926</a></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-outline-level: 2; mso-pagination: none;">
<o:p>Koo</o:p><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">hang, A.,
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">new learning design in distance education: The impact on student
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Nijhuis, J., Segers, M., & Gijselaers, W. (2008). The
extent of variability in learning strategies and
students’ perceptions of the learning environment. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Learning and Instruction, 2</i>, 121–134.
Retrieved from http://arno.unimaas.nl/show.cgi?fid=19140.</div>
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Nworie, J., & Haughton, N.
(2008, Sep/Oct). <a href="http://search.proquest.com.proxy1.ncu.edu/pqrl/docview/223120011/139EAD1B7A45AFAA276/5?accountid=28180" title="Good Intentions and Unanticipated Effects: The Unintended Consequences of the Application of Technology in Teaching and Learning Environments"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Good
intentions and unanticipated effects: the unintended
consequences of the application of technology in teaching and learning environments</span></a>. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">TechTrends,
(</span>52)</i>5, 52-58. doi: <span style="background: white;">10.1007/s11528-008-0197-y<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Santally, M.I., Rajabalee, Y.,
Cooshna-Naik, D., Rodriguez, C.O., Dedić, V., Marković, S., ... & <span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Puxley, M. (2012, July 30). Learning design
implementation for distance e-learning: blending
rapid e-learning techniques with activity-based pedagogies to design and implement a socio-constructivist
environment. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">European Journal of Open,
Distance, and e-Learning</i>.
Retrieved from <a href="http://www.eurodl.org/materials/contrib/2012/Santally_et_al.pdf">ht<a href="http://www./">tp://www.</a>eurodl.org/materials/contrib/2012/Santally_et_al.pdf
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Snyder, M.M. (2009, January/February). <a href="http://search.proquest.com.proxy1.ncu.edu/pqrl/docview/223119414/139E6DAE2F831422D93/2?accountid=28180" title="Instructional-Design Theory to Guide the Creation of Online Learning Communities for Adults"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Instructional-design
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<o:p> </o:p></div>
Deborah L. Popovicihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00026428885357985185noreply@blogger.com11tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5648944957694608174.post-89863385647548326602012-09-19T05:04:00.000-04:002012-09-19T05:10:33.585-04:00Evaluation Research Methodology to Assess Instructional Techniques and Technologies for Improving Academic Performance in America's Secondary (High School) Students<br />
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<span style="color: black;"> Conducting further research
reviews provided an opportunity to reflect upon a research method known as Evaluation
Research, which can be used for a quantitative or qualitative study (</span>Clarke
& Dawson, 1999)<span style="color: black;">.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Evaluation Research would be relevant for researchers interested in the </span>affects of instructional techniques and technologies on academic
performance in America and other nations.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="color: black;">Clarke
and Dawson (1999) pointed out that </span>"evaluation research is a form
of applied research which aims to produce information about the implementation,
operation and ultimate effectiveness of policies and programs designed to bring
about change" (p. 2), studies "the effectiveness with which existing
knowledge is used to inform and guide practical action" (p. 2), and is
"conducted to inform decisions, clarify options, reduce uncertainties, and
provide information about programs and policies" (p. 2).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="color: black;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
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<span style="color: black;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></span><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Silver (2004) explained that the </span><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">evaluation
research method can be used to collect data, which involves "student
feedback, a new course or form of delivery, or…the student experience"
(par. 46). <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Such data sources were
identified in the Concept Paper.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Questionnaires
may be used with or without participant interviews or in group discussions as
long as a particular group member does not dominate.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><span style="color: black;">Other data
collection tools include "</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">observation, interviews,
questionnaires and tests, documentary and background sources, focus groups, implementation
logs, feedback and testing methods" (Silver, 2004, par. 39).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>A
"Nominal Group Technique (NGT) has the same purpose, but normally involves
no discussion (except for item clarification)" (Silver, 2004, par. 39).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The goal of NGT is to ensure maximum
objectivity of the participants’ written viewpoints.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The second stage of the evaluation method
provides feedback to teachers who can then see if there were successes or
failures post-instruction</span><span style="color: black;">.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The third and final stage involves using the
feedback to initiate change.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></span><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Trochim
(2006) explained that the evaluation method is a "<span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">systematic acquisition and assessment of information to provide useful
feedback about some object…such as a program, policy, technology, person, need,
activity, and so on…with the </span></span><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">major goal (being) to influence decision-making or policy
formulation through the provision of empirically-driven feedback<span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">" (par.
2).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>T</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">he setting for using an evaluation method is typically within a "political
or organizational platform" (Trochim, 2006, par. 2).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Researcher evaluators need "</span>group
skills, management ability, political dexterity, sensitivity to multiple
stakeholders and other skills" (Trochim, 2006, par. 1).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
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<span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The dominant evaluation research
strategies are the "s<span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">cientific-experimental models</span>, <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">management-oriented systems models, qualitative/anthropological
models, and the participant-oriented models" (Trochim, 2006, par. 5)</span>.
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Most good researcher evaluators recognize
the four strategies, and intermix them as needed.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The formative and summative evaluation types
are the most widely used types of evaluations.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>For example, formative research asks, "w<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">hat is the definition and scope of the problem or issue, or what's the
question; where is the problem and how big or serious is it; how should the
program or technology be delivered to address the problem, and how well is the
program or technology delivered?" (Trochim, 2006, par. 14).</span> <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>S<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">ummative
evaluation asks, "what type of evaluation is feasible; what was the
effectiveness of the program or technology; and what is the net impact of the
program?" (Trochim, 2006, par. 18). </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
The results attainable from an Evaluation Research Method could provide distinct information that the American
government and educators could embrace to improve academic performance because
America's instructional techniques and technologies could emulate those used by
higher ranking nations.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Using
evaluation research could "<span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">provide useful feedback about (instructional) program(s),
polic(ies), and technolog(ies)…with the </span><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">major goal (being) to influence decision-making or policy
formulation through the provision of empirically-driven feedback<span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">" (Trochim,
2006, par. 2).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span> </span></span><br />
<br />
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<o:p> </o:p></div>
References:<br />
<div class="booktitleCxSpLast" style="margin: 1em 0px; tab-stops: 49.5pt;">
Clarke, A., & Dawson,
R. (1999). <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Evaluation research</i>.
Retrieved from Sage Research Methods. </div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpFirst" style="margin: 1em 0px; mso-add-space: auto; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 5;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Silver, H. (2004). <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Evaluation Research in Education</i>.
Retrieved from <a href="http://www.edu.plymouth.ac.uk/resined/evaluation/index.htm">http://www.edu.plymouth.</a></span><a href="http://www.edu.plymouth.ac.uk/resined/evaluation/index.htm"><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">ac.uk/resined/evaluation/index.htm</span></a><o:p></o:p></div>
<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Trochim, W.M.K.
(2002). <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Introduction to Evaluation</i>.
Retrieved from <a href="http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/intreval.htm">http://www.</a></span><a href="http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/intreval.htm"><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">socialresearchmethods.net/kb/intreval.htm</span></a>
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Deborah L. Popovicihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00026428885357985185noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5648944957694608174.post-4301657949900119832012-08-17T06:56:00.000-04:002012-08-17T06:56:40.789-04:00Experimental versus Exploratory Research<br />
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Experimental versus Exploratory Research</div>
<br />
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<br /></div>
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Exposure to the vast number of research methods easily
perplexes learners anticipating their first important research project.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Attempting to extricate the seemingly irrelevant
components that an inexperienced learner-researcher gains from reading numerous
studies, and focusing instead upon a research method that is identified as
useful for their dissertation, is difficult.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Therefore, since the target of this discussion is experimental and
exploratory research methods, my objective is to only consider these two
methods, which will possibly benefit my upcoming exploratory research
project.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Consequently, the information
that follows summarizes information from writers that has, in my opinion, contributed
to important new understanding that may impact my upcoming project.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<br />
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<br /></div>
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Lelouche
(2006) discussed experimental learning methods used in academia: "the
learning domain is well known, the expected user is a student, and the
technology…is used to guide (the student's) learning" (p. 8).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Conversely, exploratory learning methods provide
an almost entirely unstructured setting, the user is represented by a
researcher, and technologies provide the user with tools to explore learning
scenarios that encourage discovery (Lelouche, 2006).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Lelouche (2006) posited that exploratory
learning is minimally used, and encourages teachers to combine exploratory and
experimental methods. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A new paradigm in
research methodology?</div>
<br />
<br />
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Experimental
research includes manipulating variables.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Exploratory research does not manipulate variables. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Exploratory research may point the researcher
and other researchers toward more formal research.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>An objective of exploratory research is to
clarify indistinct dilemmas, and get a better grasp on the magnitude of
dilemmas. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Exploratory research does not
typically identify with action research.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Researchers undertaking exploratory research expect that further
research could provide solutions (MBA Knowledge Base, 2012). </div>
<br />
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<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none;">
I
particularly enjoy finding articles representing innovative thinking, which I believe
I found in Franklin (2005).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>"Exploratory
experimentation—experimentation that is not guided by hypothesis (or theory…)—has
a broader and more systematic role in scientific inquiry than is commonly
recognized" (p. 888).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Franklin
(2005) suggested that with "'wide', also known as 'high-throughput',
instruments (those which allow the simultaneous measure of many features of an experimental
system) for exploratory experimentation is more productive than it is otherwise"
(p. 888).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Franklin (2005) shared an
intriguing opinion from a 2002 writer: "in the high through-put world, we can
perform thousands of experiments at once, provide millions of possible answers
and then start asking questions" (p. 889).</div>
<br />
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none;">
Franklin
(2005) believes it possible that "theory-directed experimentation is more efficient
than exploratory experiments for those using narrow instrumentation" (p.
897).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>If more efficiency is found to be
true, "the efficiency of theory-directed inquiry, rather than the logic of
falsification or confirmation, is the best explanation for the ubiquity of
theory-directed experimentation in scientific practice" (p. 897).</div>
<br />
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none;">
Many
times researchers have stated that alternative, more enterprising research
methods are not conducted due to a realization that time and expense of such
methods was not feasible.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However,
Franklin (2005) suggests that if experimentalists had the availability of
computing technologies to examine data, more learning would be possible from
experiments than that by "narrow experimentalists" (p. 898).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A curiousity arises that since Franklin's
(2005) piece was published seven years ago, perhaps later researchers have
written and supported Franklin's (2005) suggestions. </div>
<br />
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none;">
Franklin
(2005) also suggested that experimentalists "would be able to investigate
connections that the narrow-experimentalist would not consider asking about for
fear of wasting time and yielding a negative result" (p. 898).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Franklin (2005) ends by asking, "might
wide instrumentation be productively used to carry out theory-directed experiments?"
(p. 898). <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Reviewing such accounts inspire
this learner-researcher to keep an open mind.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span></div>
<br />
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<br /></div>
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References:</div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
Franklin, L.R. (2005, December). Exploratory experiments. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Philosophy of Science, 72</i>, 888 – 899.
Retrieved from http://www.experimentalmath.info/papers/franklin-expm.pdf</div>
<br />
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
Lelouche, R. (2006, April 23). <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">E<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">xploratory and experimental
learning...for teachers and researchers too!</span></i><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> Retrieved from </span><a href="http://hal.inria.fr/docs/00/12/37/31/PDF/ArtFinal_CELDA_05.pdf">http://hal.inria.fr/docs/00/12/37/31/PDF/ArtFinal_CELDA_05.pdf</a></div>
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MBA Knowledge Base. (2012). <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Exploratory research and its methods</i>. Retrieved from http://www.mbaknol.com/research-methodology/exploratory-research-and-its-methods/</div>
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Deborah L. Popovicihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00026428885357985185noreply@blogger.com3tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5648944957694608174.post-1588354134791346932012-06-11T23:28:00.000-04:002012-06-11T23:51:36.409-04:00Adult Learning Principles: Knowles<div style="text-align: center;">
Abstract</div>
<br />
One of the adult learning theorists, Knowles, provides online andragogical instructors an opportunity to model instruction that gains adult students effective learning. Appraising Knowles' six learning principles allows in depth analysis usable toward creating guidelines and techniques that instructors and course designers require for a course's structure, delivery, and mentoring design. Valuable insight is possible by including a review of the benefits gained if Knowles' learning principles are employed. Foregoing an appraisal of the quality assurance issues would be unwise for the practitioner who embraces a responsibility for successful learning outcomes. <br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: center;">
<u>Introduction: Adult Learning Principles</u></div>
<br />
Ota, DiCarlo, Burts, Laird, & Gioe (2006) recommended that instructors seriously consider blending Knowles' six adult learning theories if substantial learning is the objective. Each learner will learn best if assessed individually: the appropriate degree of teaching uses learning theory strategies designed for the learner. Understanding the six learning theory assumptions in andragogy prepares facilitators with an opportunity to provide successful learning outcomes (Ota et al., 2006). Fully understanding the implications that the adult learning theories elicit requires developing guidelines and techniques relative to the structure, delivery, and mentoring of an online course. Although the guidelines and techniques are typically blended when teaching online adults, each learning theory is singularly presented. Also reviewed are the benefits of adapting the adult learning theories, and quality assurance principles.<br />
<div style="text-align: center;">
<br />
Andragogical Learning Principle Number One</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<br />
Ota, DiCarlo, Burts, Laird, Gioe (2006) wrote that adult learners have a Need to Know. When applied, adults will know prior to the learning event the reason they need to learn something. Knowing occurs if the instructor aids the learner in becoming aware of the learning need, and demonstrates to the learner the value in the learning need.</div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<br /></div>
Guidelines for the Structure of an Online Course. <br />
<br />
Fidishun (n.d.) wrote that the Need to Know theory is applied if learners participate in activities that encourage "reflection on what they expect to learn, how they might use it in the future or how it will help them to meet their goals" (par. 5). Structuring an online course requires an appraisal of activities that scholars have tested, which support reflection and goal attainment. For example, learning portfolios used throughout a course and beyond aids learners in "uncovering gaps in knowledge and skills that form the basis of learning goals" (Collins, 2009, par. 22). <br />
<br />
Guidelines for the Delivery of an Online Course. <br />
<br />
Integrating learners' early reflections, and requesting learners to provide feedback for each activity supports learners' goal quests (Fidishun, n.d.). As the instructor monitors the processes occurring within the integration of reflecting, and reviews feedback, the potential for successful learning increases as the instructor makes technology revisions or assigns individualized lessons. <br />
<br />
Guidelines for Mentoring the Delivery of an Online Course. <br />
<br />
Mentors "help protégés set out goals and learning objectives from the outset. Together, mentors and protégés assess the progress protégés are making toward meeting those goals" (Sherman, Voight, Tibbetts, Dobbins, Evans, & Weidler, 2000, p. 5). Mentors who guide but do not direct or spell out the learner's identification and writing of goals support self-directed learning.<br />
<br />
Techniques for Using the Structure of an Online Course. <br />
<br />
Instructors can designate a time within the course for learners to reflect upon their online learning processes and progress. Students should receive leeway to discuss "new roles, plan action strategies and exchange knowledge and skills for effective and efficient online learning" (Cercone, 2008, p. 159). Learners "benefit from the use of think logs, reflective journals, and group discussions within a cooperative learning setting" (Cercone, 2008, p. 159).<br />
<br />
Techniques for Delivering an Online Course. <br />
<br />
Instructors can devise assignment activities that support the learners' ability to speak about and apply real-life situations or events using the activities. Sharing such phenomenon provides new opportunities for learners to solve problems in groups and develop online relationships. Activities should also be closely targeted to the learners' maturity levels (Cercone, 2008).<br />
<br />
Techniques for Mentoring the Delivery of an Online Course. <br />
<br />
Instructors facilitate learning by providing encouragement, resources, and other supports to learners as they increase their knowledge and work together to resolve problems (Sherman, Voight, Tibbetts, Dobbins, Evans, & Weidler, 2000). Instructors transitioning freely between the pedagogical and andragogical philosophies are more effective in online classroom settings because a "linear mode of teaching (either solely andragogical or solely pedagogical) can be detrimental in helping adults learn" (Wang & Kania-Gosche, 2011, p. 75). The pedagogicaly-based "helping relationship…and the directing relationship (pedagogical philosophy) of adult learning professionals either facilitate or inhibit critical reflection of adult learners" (Wang & Kania-Gosche, 2011, p. 75). Such facilitation or inhibition, which affects learners' ability to critically reflect, "occurs because these two relationships determine either the andragogical methods/styles or the pedagogical methods/styles" (Wang & Kania-Gosche, 2011, p. 75).<br />
<br />
Benefit of Adapting the Need to Know Theory. <br />
<br />
As the instructor inputs revisions of technologies or designates individualized lessons, the potential for successful learning increases (Collins, 2009). Collins (2009) wrote that such changes provide learners with important new skills. For example, learners gain an ability to "critically analyze and reflect on their situations; diagnose their learning needs with specific reference to competencies they have helped identify; and formulate socially and personally relevant learning goals" (Collins, 2009, par. 18).<br />
<div style="text-align: center;">
<br />
Andragogical Learning Principle Number Two</div>
<br />
Ota, DiCarlo, Burts, Laird, & Gioe (2006) explained the second adult learning theory known as the Learners' Self-Concept. Adults conceive that they are inherently responsible for their existence, and want to be seen and treated as capable and self-directed (Ota et al., 2006). Instructors support the learner's self-concept by aiding adults in developing self-directed learning skills.<br />
<br />
Guidelines for the Structure of an Online Course. <br />
<br />
Fidishun (n.d.) wrote that designers of technology-based adult learning programs should "use all of the capabilities of the technology including branching, the ability to skip sections a student already understands, and multiple forms of presentation of material which can assist people with various learning styles" (par. 5). By designing components of online course software to permit learners to self-direct learning, actual learning is customized to the learner's needs. For learners still transitioning into a self-directed style or who are new to self-directed learning, software designers should also compensate sufficiently for these learners by providing a structure that promotes the transition (Fidishun, n.d.). For these learners, the instructor can facilitate self-direction by "giving them short, directed, concrete online tasks that provide the most learning for the experience to make these adults see the relevancy of online learning" (Fidishun, n.d., par. 5). <br />
<br />
Guidelines for the Delivery of an Online Course. <br />
<br />
Fidishun (n.d.) wrote that non-linear web-based learning provides learners with the ability to gain new knowledge customized to their needs. However, some learners motivated to take an online course may still not be able to or want to self-direct their own learning. To compensate for this characteristic, instructors can provide as much additional contact to such students during the class' beginning stages or provide a traditional setting that uses technology-based learning modules to gain learner comfort with self-direction (Fidishun, n.d., par. 5). <br />
<br />
Guidelines for Mentoring the Delivery of an Online Course. <br />
<br />
Mentors need to be proficient in monitoring students' abilities at least until the learner demonstrates the required appropriate results. Especially at the beginning of a course, mentors should carefully monitor each student, and provide rapid feedback and materials to guide learners in the manner that they need.<br />
<br />
Techniques for Using the Structure of an Online Course. <br />
<br />
The online classroom should support a climate for learning by structuring e-tools usable for mutual planning, forming learning objectives with peers and the instructor, assessing learning needs, and so forth (Educational Services and Planning San Mateo County Community College District, 2011). The learning management system should provide capabilities for online e-mailing within the classroom portal, a classroom discussion forum, and private communications with the instructor. Providing rapid feedback to learners should provide easy access to messages, and an ability to respond.<br />
<br />
Techniques for Delivering an Online Course. <br />
<br />
The instructor should encourage learners to frequently post responses to questions, timely read other students' comments, and respond to classmates using e-tools that enable threaded discussions. Learners should be asked to share their learning progress with others, and read and respond to submitted work. Online debates, multidimensional projects, and activities suggested by learners promotes interactivity. Allowing learners sufficient time to work through conflict rather than directing an outcome is helpful in motivating self-directed learning (Cercone, 2008). <br />
<br />
Techniques for Mentoring the Delivery of an Online Course.<br />
<br />
"Facilitate learning by encouraging protégés to build their own knowledge while providing resources and other supports…(to help) in working through problems" (Sherman, Voight, Tibbetts, Dobbins, Evans, & Weidler, 2000, p. 5). As instructors provide feedback to learners so that learners perceive they are being treated as capable and self-directed (Ota et al., 2006), a learner's self-concept will grow. Instructors need to realize when and how much support the learner needs to develop self-directing skills, and design lessons and feedback appropriately.<br />
<br />
Benefit of Adapting the Learners' Self-Concept Theory. <br />
<br />
When permitting students to follow a learning path that most appropriately suits them, a self-directing aptitude increases. Learners boost their ability to design and learn the information most relevant to their needs.<br />
<div style="text-align: center;">
<br />
Andragogical Learning Principle Three</div>
<br />
The Role of the Learners' Experiences in adult learning addresses that every adult has a group of elements in their past, which collectively affects their repertoire (Ota, DiCarlo, Burts, Laird, & Gioe, 2006). "There are individual differences in background, learning style, motivation, needs, interests, and goals" (Ota et al., 2006, par. 4). Learning events should be designed to draw out such differences so sharing experiences with peers can result in new learning.<br />
<br />
Guidelines for the Structure of an Online Course. <br />
<br />
Fidishun (n.d.) wrote that "adults have had a lifetime of experiences, (which) makes adult learners more heterogeneous than younger learners and also provides an additional base of knowledge that can and should be used in the classroom or technology-based learning experience" (par. 10). Online adult learners desire to make use of what they know, and gain acknowledgement for that knowledge. Consequently, technology-based instruction must "include opportunities for learners to use their knowledge and experience" (Fidishun, n.d., par. 10). <br />
<br />
Guidelines for the Delivery of an Online Course. <br />
<br />
Providing learning experiences can include "discussions, simulations, problem-solving activities, or case methods" (Ota, 2006, par. 4). Online delivery must include specific information about each learning activity but not provide so much direction that learners are prohibited from creativity. If some learners need further direction, the instructor is easily able to provide that when a learner indicates difficulty in understanding. <br />
<br />
Guidelines for Mentoring the Delivery of an Online Course.<br />
<br />
Applying this theory requires that instructors use teaching strategies that enable adults to tap into their experiences, which consequently increases the adult learner's motivation toward individualized learning. Instructors should design appropriate learning activities in order to promote learners' desire to share sometimes troubling information yet maintain a sense of security for proprietary details. <br />
<br />
Techniques for Using the Structure of an Online Course.<br />
<br />
"Case studies, reflective activities, group projects that call upon the expertise of group members and lab experiments are examples of the type of learning activities which will facilitate the use of learners’ already acquired expertise" (Fidishun, n.d., par. 10). Experiences that adults bring with them also extends insight about who the learner has become as a result of their experiences. "Self-identity including habits and biases are determined from their experience" (Fidishun, n.d., par. 10). Technology-based instruction for adults should provide opportunities for reflection. "Reflective learning involves assessment or reassessment of assumptions” and “reflective learning becomes transformative whenever assumptions or premises are found to be distorting, inauthentic or otherwise invalid” (Fidishun, n.d., par. 10). <br />
<br />
Techniques for Delivering an Online Course. <br />
<br />
Reflective learning activities help learners to reflect upon and understand their biases and habits, and consequently transition them in the direction of new understanding about self. "Using web-based or other technologies to have students reflect on learning activitiesor to put themselves in a different character in a case study or scenario may cause adults to reevaluate already learned information or patterns" (Fidishun, n.d., par. 10). Cercone (2008) recommends doing a needs assessment as well as a student self-assessment before the online class begins. The instructor should also communicate the results to the class. Instructors and learners alike should recognize that one's experiences are valuable. Activities should enable learners to use their knowledge and experience, and learners should be informed about why the topic important. Instructors should also provide "practical information with examples, link new topics to what has been discussed or read, and open the class with introductions that include personal and professional backgrounds (Cercone, 2008, p. 157). <br />
<br />
Techniques for Mentoring the Delivery of an Online Course. <br />
<br />
"Facilitate learning by encouraging protégés to build their own knowledge while providing resources and other supports" (Sherman, Voight, Tibbetts, Dobbins, Evans, & Weidler, 2000, p. 5). Learners should receive support while working through their problems. Instructors can use e-tools to help learners build new information that originates from past experiences and previous knowledge (Sherman et al., 2000). Some strategies include "observations, portfolios, journals, and videotapes" (Sherman et al., 2000).<br />
<br />
Benefit of Adapting the Role of Learners' Experiences Theory. <br />
<br />
"A key element of experience-based learning is that learners analyze their experience by reflecting, evaluating and reconstructing it (sometimes individually, sometimes collectively, sometimes both) in order to draw meaning (and further action) from it in the light of prior experience" (Andresen, Boud & Cohen, n.d., p. 1). While reflection about experiences can stimulate a learner to develop more openness relative to new experiences, social benefits also exist. For example, learners' reflections can motivate "critical social action and a stance embodying moral accountability and socio-political responsibility" (Andresen et al., n.d., p. 9).<br />
<div style="text-align: center;">
<br />
Andragogical Learning Principle Number Four</div>
<br />
Ota, DiCarlo, Burts, Laird, & Gioe (2006) discussed the fourth learning theory known as a Readiness to Learn. This theory defines that as adults strive to manage current actual life events, they raise to the stage of becoming ready to learn in order to use new knowledge to address the events. Learning is less effective when an activity is geared toward a future event (Ota et al., 2006).<br />
<br />
Guidelines for the Structure of an Online Course. <br />
<br />
Fidishun (n.d.) wrote that "adults become ready to learn something when, as Knowles explained, “they experience a need to learn it in order to cope more satisfyingly with real-life tasks or problems” (par. 12). Learning opportunities in technology-based instruction should provide activities that refer to the needs and goals of learners. Designing experiences that simulate an experience wherein a learner needs new knowledge or skill encourages students' readiness to learn (Fidishun, n.d.).<br />
<br />
Guidelines for the Delivery of an Online Course. <br />
<br />
Learners need to have four characteristics to learn effectively: (1) a disposition for learning, (2) adequate cognitive functioning, (3) an adequate knowledge base for the content being presented, and (4) adequate study skills and strategies (Wood, 2007, par. 7). Cercone (2008) wrote that "adult students are goal oriented; thus, objectives and goals should be outlined early in a course" (p. 45). Organizing online learning events should appeal to learners' goals, and be applicable to the learners' work or home (Cercone, 2008). <br />
<br />
Techniques for Using the Structure of an Online Course.<br />
<br />
Cercone (2008) wrote that activities that help learners to relate to real situations, provide opportunities for solving problems in group settings, ensure that learners' maturity levels are reflected in assignments, and enable learners to work on assignments that apply to their life and work experiences all improve a student's readiness to learn. Many online learning tools are available that can accommodate all of the previously mentioned activities. <br />
<br />
Techniques for Delivering an Online Course. <br />
<br />
Morland and Bivens (2004) wrote that aiding learners to become more readily able to learn requires online materials that should "minimize the need for the learner to scroll through text, printed instructional article should not exceed three pages, and graphics, diagrams, or pictures should be used only when they lend meaning and clarification to the topic" (p. 3). Instructors should provide navigation capabilities that offer article or interactive exercise links. Hyperlinks should be set up for "key words, phrases, and/or concepts within the instructional article to some type of glossary or reference that provides definitions and additional clarification as needed by the learner" (Morland & Bivens, 2004, p. 3).<br />
<br />
Techniques for Mentoring the Delivery of an Online Course. <br />
<br />
Monitoring learners' development, and helping learners to be more able to achieve new accomplishments, provides feedback to the mentor so that interventional activities can be devised (Darling-Hammond, Orcutt, & Cheung, n.d., p.35). Mentors need to ask questions, assess completed work, and conduct one-on-one sessions with learners, which can help the mentor to decide the level and type of support the learner needs (Darling-Hammond et al., n.d.).<br />
<br />
Benefit of Adapting the Readiness to Learn Theory.<br />
<br />
By providing positive feedback to students about their "areas of competence and opportunities to take on responsibility successfully are extremely important. A developmentally healthy environment will support ways in which cognitive reasoning develops with healthy identity development and moral reasoning about how to support and care for others" (Darling-Hammond, Orcutt, & Cheung, n.d., p. 38).<br />
<div style="text-align: center;">
<br />
Andragogical Learning Principle Number Five</div>
<br />
The fifth learning theory presented by Ota, DiCarlo, Burts, Laird, & Gioe (2006), which is known as Orientation to Learning. Adults are learning oriented relative to tasks and problems, and desire learning that will improve their effectiveness when faced with everyday tasks and problems (Ota et al., 2006). <br />
<br />
Guidelines for the Structure of an Online Course. <br />
<br />
Fidishun (n.d.) wrote that adults are life, task or problem-centered in their orientation to learning. They want to see how what they are learning will apply to their life, a task they need to perform, or to solving a problem. Technology-based instruction will be more effective if it uses real-life examples or situations that adult learners may encounter in their life or on the job (Fidishun, n.d.). <br />
<br />
Guidelines for the Delivery of an Online Course. <br />
<br />
Allowing flexibility in the design of a lesson will permit student input on issues that need to be addressed in a class" (Fidishun, n.d.). If students can bring real-life examples of school discipline challenges to a chat session in an online course on behavior management they will be anxious to participate and gain the practical experience which will help them to do better at their job (par. 13).<br />
<br />
Guidelines for Mentoring the Delivery of an Online Course. <br />
<br />
Orientation to learning is guided by the mentor or instructor. Cercone (2008) wrote that instructors should ensure that students write their course goals in the beginning of the course so they can relate the course goals with their current needs and issues.<br />
<br />
Techniques for Using the Structure of an Online Course. <br />
<br />
The Orientation to Learning theory appeals to an online format. For example, as class members provide input in the class forum, classmates begin to jointly bridge relationships, and can focus on strengths and weaknesses of classmates. Providing an online class forum link to the list of best practices helps students to understand how they are doing when compared to others especially as discussions expand (Cercone, 2008). <br />
<br />
Techniques for Delivering an Online Course. <br />
<br />
A good explanation should be provided to learners about how the course's information is of value to them. Cercone (2008) wrote that building in a good level of flexibility so learners and the entire class can provide input should be provided. Providing a list of best practices to learners helps students to understand how they are doing when compared to others. Maintaining consistent guidelines throughout the course is very important. Triggering internal motivation is encouraged when learners diagnose their own needs. (Cercone, 2008).<br />
<br />
Techniques for Mentoring the Delivery of an Online Course.<br />
<br />
"Focus on what is important to protégés’ work environment to help protégés improve practices" (Sherman, Voight, Tibbetts, Dobbins, Evans, & Weidler, 2000, p. 5). Providing sufficient information upfront to learners supports an Orientation to Learning as all facets of the course are explained, questions are asked, and answers supplied.<br />
<br />
Benefit of Adapting the Orientation to Learning Theory. <br />
<br />
Fidishun (n.d.) explained that learners have a strong motivation to perceive that the content being learned applies to their life. As learners' orientation to learning grows, performing tasks or solving a problem become easier. Furthermore, using real-life examples during technology-based instruction provides exposure to many others' real-life situations. <br />
<div style="text-align: center;">
<br />
Andragogical Learning Principle Number Six</div>
<br />
The sixth learning theory, Motivation, explains that adults' internal inspirations rather than external are much more compelling (Ota, DiCarlo, Burts, Laird, & Gioe (2006). If teaching foregoes this theory, an adult's level of motivation for learning can be reduced dramatically.<br />
<br />
Guidelines for the Structure of an Online Course.<br />
<br />
Fidishun (n.d.) wrote that "while adult learners may respond to external motivators, internal priorities are more important. Incentives such as increased job satisfaction, self-esteem and quality of life are important in giving adults a reason to learn" (par. 14). As learners' contribute to lesson development or choose when topics are presented, learners begin to take on ownership for their learning processes. <br />
<br />
Guidelines for the Delivery of an Online Course. <br />
<br />
Learners will respond more positively when the above characteristics are provided via technology-based instruction. Designing activities that support the growth of learners' self-esteem or create a growing sense of accomplishment motivate learners. Autonomy in deploying self or group-designed activities also accomplishes increased motivation. <br />
<br />
Guidelines for Mentoring the Delivery of an Online Course.<br />
<br />
Adults are internally motivated and self-directed. Adult learners resist learning when they feel others are imposing information, ideas or actions on them (Fidishun, 2000). The Queensland Occupational Therapy Fieldwork Collaborative (2007) reported that mentors can establish a "graded learning program that moves from more to less structure, from less to more responsibility and from more to less direct supervision, at an appropriate pace that is challenging yet not overloading for the student" (par. 7). Mentors should create online projects or tasks for learners that appeal to the students' interests. <br />
<br />
Techniques for Using the Structure of an Online Course. <br />
<br />
Instructors should design activities that encourage the use of resources such as a school's e-library, the internet, and other e-tools. The online syllabus should explicitly detail the learning objectives, course goals, and student expectations for the course (Callahan, 2010). Explicitly communicate to the students what they need to do to be successful in the class and achieve personal goals (Callahan, 2010).<br />
<br />
Techniques for Delivering an Online Course. <br />
<br />
Setting the tone early in an online course can be achieved by using class surveys to determine existing knowledge (Calahan, 2010). Varying teaching methods to gain more student participation, and providing immediate feedback encourages learners. "Incorporating problem-based learning, collaborative learning, experiments, and the use of technology such as clickers, allows for greater student interaction and the opportunity for students to practice newly acquired skills and knowledge" (Callahan, 2010, par. 5). By supplementing course information with online webcasts, podcasts, or other e-tools, learners become more inspired by using other technologies.<br />
<br />
Techniques for Mentoring the Delivery of an Online Course. <br />
<br />
Facilitating learners' activities to become more self-directed, and carry a higher level of responsibility supports learners' internal motivation to learn (Queensland Occupational Therapy Fieldwork Collaborative, 2007). Instructors can also take advantage of developing rapport with the learners, which can maximize approachability to the instructor. Encouraging learners to ask questions, and explore new concepts supports the development of learner motivation (Queensland Occupational Therapy Fieldwork Collaborative, 2007). Before providing information to learners, encourage them to ask more questions of themselves and their peers. Acknowledging goal completion additionally provides motivation to learners as milestones are reached.<br />
<br />
Benefit of Adapting the Motivation Theory.<br />
<br />
Callahan (2010) wrote that "students display greater enthusiasm and interest for a course if they can relate the content and course activities to their daily lives" (par. 11). Learners' gain deeper understanding of the course materials, and learners are better able to grasp the value of what is being learned when the course materials are connected to real-world experiences or their educational goals (Callahan, 2010).<br />
<br />
Quality Assurance Guidelines<br />
<br />
An online adult learning program is not replete if Quality Assurance (QA) guidelines have not been considered. Due to the importance of this topic, details concerning the design and implementation of a quality assurance process is included. More importantly, the checklist also presents guidance for online instructors who wish to ensure that their instructional activities provide every online adult student with learning that combines all six learning theories yet additionally is customized to each learner. Dayton and Vaughn (2007) presented the following QA guidelines:<br />
<br />
1. Seek a consensual definition of quality in online instruction by delineating a set of high-level principles, all or most of which also describe aspects of quality in any kind of university course. <br />
<br />
2. Build a flexible QA checklist based on the adopted principles: for each principle, compose imperative statements describing general characteristics of course design or teaching. Under each of these ideal characteristics, list examples of observable discrete elements of a course design or online teaching activity.<br />
<br />
3. Promote the QA checklist as good-practice guidelines for faculty to use in designing new or revising existing courses.<br />
<br />
4. Use the QA checklist to create a rubric for peer evaluation of courses (formative) or summative evaluation by a non-peer specialist in online instruction; summative evaluations should still emphasize constructive suggestions and the discretion of the individual instructor.<br />
<br />
5. Use the QA checklist as a touchstone for the redesign of student questionnaires used to evaluate online courses and instructors. (p. 480).<br />
<br />
Appendix A was also included from Dayton and Vaughn (2007) due to its extensiveness in providing and ensuring excellence when designing online courses.<br />
<div style="text-align: center;">
<br />
<u>Conclusion</u></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<br />
Embracing a program to instruct adults online should carry no greater objective than to allow learners to adapt learning materials to concentrate upon what learning is needed, and that particularly avoids duplicating knowledge already learned. While applying learning theories is the goal of most institutions and instructors, learning content should not be required solely because accreditation requirements carry the greatest motivation to program planning. Ramping up creatively to offer curriculum content that promises the most learning that is needed by each learner equates to world-scale learning, and provides graduates who will have the tools needed to effectively change global problems. </div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
Consequently, the design of technology-based adult learning programs at the least must become much more interactive, learner-centered, and self-directed by those most interested in learning—the student. Missed learning opportunities can then result in learning opportunities as yet unachieved: no greater travesty exists than when learners feel unchallenged because they were not empowered to manage their own learning.</div>
<br />
References:<br />
<br />
Andresen, L., Boud, D., & Cohen, R. (n.d.). Experience-based learning: Contemporary issues. <br />
Retrieved from <a href="http://complexworld.pbworks.com/f/Experience-based%2520learning.pdf">http://complexworld.pbworks.com/f/Experience-based%2520learning.pdf</a><br />
<br />
Arsham, H. (2002, March). Impact of the internet on learning and teaching. United States Distance Learning Association, 16(3). Retrieved from <a href="http://www.usdla.org/html/journal/">http://www.usdla.org/html/journal/</a><br />
MAR02_Issue/article01.html<br />
<br />
Callahan, M. (2010). How do I motivate my students? Retrieved from <a href="http://www.tlpd.ttu/">http://www.tlpd.ttu</a>.<br />
edu/teach/TLTC%20Teaching%20Resources/MotivateStudents.asp<br />
<br />
Cercone, K. (2008). Characteristics of adult learners with implications for online learning design. AACE Journal, 16(2), 137-159. Retrieved from <a href="http://training.gaincc.org/pluginfile.php/1014/mod_resource/content/0/adult_learners_online.pdf">http://training.gaincc.org/pluginfile.php/1014/mod_resource/content/0/adult_learners_online.pdf</a><br />
<br />
Collins, J. (2009, March). Lifelong learning in the 21st century and beyond. RadioGraphics, 29, 613-622. Retrieved from <a href="http://radiographics.rsna.org/content/29/2/613.full">http://radiographics.rsna.org/content/29/2/613.full</a><br />
<br />
Darling-Hammond, L., Orcutt, S., & Cheung, M. (n.d.). Learning as we grow: Development and learning. Retrieved from <a href="http://www.learner.org/courses/learningclassroom/">http://www.learner.org/courses/learningclassroom/</a><br />
support/02_dev_print.pdf<br />
<br />
Dayton, D., & Vaughn, M.M. (2007, November). Developing a quality assurance process to <br />
guide the design and assessment of online courses. Technical Communication, 54(4), <br />
475-489. Retrieved from <a href="http://www.towson.edu/blackboard/ISD/supportdocs/dayton_online_teaching_TCnov07.pdf">http://www.towson.edu/blackboard/ISD/supportdocs/dayton_online_teaching_TCnov07.pdf</a><br />
<br />
DiCarlo, C.F., Burts, D.C., Laird, R., & Gioe, C. (2006, December). Training and the <br />
needs of adult learners. Journal of Extension, 44(6). Retrieved from <a href="http://www.joe.org/joe/2006december/tt5.php">http://www.joe.org/joe/2006december/tt5.php</a><br />
<br />
Educational Services and Planning San Mateo County Community College District. (2011). Learning theories related to distance learning. Retrieved from <a href="http://ctlonline.net/websavvy/">http://ctlonline.net/websavvy/</a><br />
learntheory.html<br />
<br />
Fidishun, D. (n.d.). Andragogy and technology: Integrating adult learning theory as we teach with technology. Retrieved from <a href="http://frank.mtsu.edu/~itconf/proceed00/fidishun.htmOta.">http://frank.mtsu.edu/~itconf/proceed00/fidishun.htmOta.</a> <br />
<br />
Morland, D.V., & Bivens, H. (2004). Designing instructional articles in online courses for adult learners. Innovate, 1(2). Retrieved from <a href="http://innovateonline.info/pdf/vol1_issue2/Designing_Instructional_Articles_in_Online_Courses_for_Adult_Learners.pdf">http://innovateonline.info/pdf/vol1_issue2/Designing_Instructional_Articles_in_Online_Courses_for_Adult_Learners.pdf</a> <br />
<br />
Queensland Occupational Therapy Fieldwork Collaborative. (2007). Adult learning theory and principles: Become familiar with adult learning theory and the six principles of adult learning.Retrieved from <a href="http://www.qotfc.edu.au/resource/index.html?page=65375">http://www.qotfc.edu.au/resource/index.html?page=65375</a><br />
<br />
Sherman, R., Voight, J., Tibbetts, J., Dobbins, D., Evans, A., & Weidler, D. (2000, April). Adult educators’ guide to designing instructor mentoring. Retrieved from <a href="http://www.calpro-online.org/pubs/Mentoring%20Guide.pdf">http://www.calpro-online.org/pubs/Mentoring%20Guide.pdf</a> <br />
<br />
Wang, V.C.X., & Kania-Gosche, B. (2011). Assessing adult learners using Web 2.0 technologies. International Journal of Technology in Teaching and Learning, 7(1), 61-78. Retrieved from <a href="http://www.sicet.org/journals/ijttl/issue1101/5_VictorWang.pdf">http://www.sicet.org/journals/ijttl/issue1101/5_VictorWang.pdf</a><br />
<br />
Wood, M.M. (2007). Pre-requisites for learning: Goodness of fit with Professor Reuven Feuerstein's cognitive enrichment programs. Retrieved from <a href="http://www.scel.org/resources/">http://www.scel.org/resources/</a><br />
Learning%20Readiness.pdf<br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: center;">
Appendix A: Quality Assurance Checklist For Online Courses</div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<br /></div>
1. In what ways does the online course design encourage contact between the students and the instructor?<br />
Use a variety of communication techniques to connect with students:<br />
_ Personalize communications with students<br />
_ Know students by name by the end of the first two weeks of class, and use it in chats and emails<br />
_ Provide a picture of yourself<br />
_ Plan for increased time for student interactions compared with traditional courses<br />
_ Provide feedback to students in a manner that is non-threatening and constructive<br />
_ Give negative comments to students privately<br />
_ Have question/answer session periodically throughout “class”<br />
_ Make summary remarks available in discussion for all students<br />
_ Serve as mentor or informal advisor to students<br />
Provide clear guidelines for interaction with students:<br />
_ Set clear standards for instructors’ timelines for responding to messages<br />
_ Provide appropriate instructor contact information<br />
_ Establish policies describing the types of communication that should take place over different channels<br />
_ Include a schedule of chat times<br />
Use online course features to encourage communication:<br />
_ Use real time features such as chat rooms and whiteboards<br />
_ Use asynchronous tools such as discussion boards and e-mail<br />
_ Maintain separate e-mail account for web courses<br />
_ Forward responses to frequently asked questions to all students to avoid duplication and ensure consistency of responses<br />
_ Provide telephone access as necessary<br />
_ Consider conducting a teleconference during and at the end of the course to discuss successes and problems<br />
<br />
2. How does the learning environment foster reciprocity and cooperation among students?<br />
Formalize expectations for discussions:<br />
Establish and publish a discussion tool protocol that explains why tools are being used, what students are expected to do and how they will be evaluated<br />
Provide the tools for student interaction:<br />
_ Organize Web site to enable student interaction with the content, other students and instructor<br />
_ Provide discussion forums encouraging open and honest dialog<br />
_ Set up teams of students to interact via discussion boards and e-mail<br />
_ Encourage students to hold virtual study sessions via chat or bulletin boards<br />
Facilitate student interactions:<br />
_ Include “warm up” period with light-hearted exercises aimed to help students get to know each other<br />
_ Allow students to introduce themselves<br />
_ Ask students to share backgrounds and interests<br />
_ Ask students to publish online bios and/or photos to allow other members of the class to visualize them<br />
Encourage group collaboration:<br />
_ Create social interaction through group collaboration to facilitate high achievement<br />
_ Encourage problem solving in groups via discussion board or e-mail<br />
_ Create learning communities, study groups, or project groups within the class<br />
_ Encourage students to work in groups using problem-solving activities to develop topic <br />
understanding<br />
_ Post papers, etc. so that students can respond to others’ work<br />
<br />
3. In what ways is active involvement of the students facilitated throughout the course?<br />
Provide opportunities for students to discuss the course material:<br />
_ Actively involve students through writing and interaction<br />
_ Provide opportunities for students to articulate and revise their thinking to insure accuracy of knowledge construction<br />
_ Devise assignments to encourage students to employ critical thinking strategies<br />
_ Encourage students to “talk” about what they are learning via discussion boards<br />
_ Craft questions to foster discussion and understanding<br />
_ Assign students to present work to the class via bulletin board postings, chat, presentations<br />
Provide content that enables critical analysis and reflection:<br />
_ Make content available to students in manageable segments<br />
_ Assure that content is easily navigated<br />
_ Make use of ancillary resources available as part of the course content<br />
_ Provide internal communication tools for students to elaborate on course content<br />
_ Provide content that adds value in addition to questions<br />
_ Connect chats to modules, textbook, course content, and assignments<br />
Have students record observations and self-assessments:<br />
_ Provide students with ample opportunity for self-assessment<br />
_ Require students to keep an observation/reflection journal<br />
Use real-world data or situations in assignments:<br />
_ Present problem-solving situations in a realistic context<br />
_ Give assignments that provide students ample opportunity to practice and apply concepts and skills in realistic and relevant ways<br />
_ Use real world experiences in teaching content to make subject matter more relevant<br />
_ Ask students to relate outside events or work experiences to the subjects covered<br />
_ Give students concrete, real world situations to analyze<br />
_ Use simulations or labs in class<br />
<br />
4. How are students given prompt feedback for learning activities?<br />
Set expectations in writing:<br />
_ Provide clearly defined statements informing students what to expect in terms of instructor response time<br />
_ Have students agree on expectations regarding times for student assignment completion and faculty response<br />
Provide prompt feedback on assignments:<br />
_ Return assignments with comments quickly – within the stated period of time<br />
_ Provide weekly guidance to the class<br />
_ Make sure comments on student work are constructive<br />
_ Grade assignments consistent with criteria set forth in the syllabus/module<br />
_ Give students detailed feedback on performance early in term<br />
_ Contact students who miss a chat<br />
_ Provide both information feedback and acknowledgment feedback. Information feedback provides<br />
information or evaluation. Acknowledgment feedback confirms that some event has occurred<br />
Use quizzes and tests for feedback:<br />
_ Use built in, auto-graded quiz feature when appropriate<br />
_ Give proctored examinations or other assessments<br />
_ Tie quizzes and tests to course objectives<br />
_ Prepare classroom exercises and problems that give students immediate feedback on performance <br />
(self tests, for example)<br />
Provide quick feedback in both synchronous and asynchronous settings:<br />
_ Provide students with continuous feedback and frequent support via e-mail, chat, and discussion postings<br />
_ Take an active role in moderating discussions, providing feedback, and participating in other <br />
interactive components<br />
<br />
5. Is the course organized so that students and the instructor use their time efficiently and<br />
effectively while focusing on the learning objectives?<br />
Communicate time requirements clearly:<br />
_ State time-achievement expectations at the beginning of class<br />
_ Clearly state expectations defining minimal levels of student participation<br />
_ Establish clear goals and communicate these to students<br />
_ Set specific expectations for students with respect to a minimum amount of time per week for study and homework assignments<br />
_ Clearly communicate to students the amount of time they should spend preparing for class<br />
_ Make it clear to students the amount of time needed to understand complex material<br />
_ Recognize that online courses need deadlines<br />
Manage course time effectively:<br />
_ Emphasize the importance of good study skills throughout course<br />
_ Use TA to help with tasks, or assign some course tasks to students<br />
_ Identify which key concepts (and methods of teaching them) can be covered in the amount of time available<br />
_ Create interactive learning environment, but do not overwhelm students (or instructor) if interaction is too time consuming<br />
_ Give students adequate time for completing assignments<br />
_ Consider both in class and out of class time requirements<br />
_ Underscore the importance of regular work, steady application, sound self pacing, and scheduling<br />
<br />
6. How does the course design communicate high expectations?<br />
Provide clear and detailed written guidance on expectations in the syllabus:<br />
_ Clearly delineate institutional policy on cheating and plagiarism at start of course<br />
_ Write objectives at the appropriate level of Bloom’s taxonomy<br />
_ Present objectives clearly to students as part of the syllabus and learning module, if applicable<br />
_ Explain group member roles and guidelines, and protocols if group does not function properly<br />
_ Provide a guide to overall class structure<br />
_ Provide a guide to appropriate tone and persona<br />
_ Provide weights and values of graded components of course<br />
_ Explain grading criteria clearly<br />
_ Communicate how the integrity of student work in assignments and exams is assured<br />
_ Clearly define expectations for participation<br />
_ Provide course objective and learning outcomes for the course in a clearly written, straightforward statement<br />
_ Tell students that you expect them to work hard<br />
Ensure that content and assignments are challenging:<br />
_ Assure that content and requirements are as demanding as a face-to-face course with identical or similar content<br />
_ Explicitly communicate expectations, including deliverables<br />
_ Provide corrective feedback on assignments<br />
_ Help students set challenging goals for their own learning<br />
_ Provide lists of suggested extra reading that support key points<br />
Reward excellence publicly:<br />
_ Provide examples of past students’ projects, papers, etc. for students to refer to<br />
_ Celebrate in class successes—name students or group<br />
_ Challenging tasks, sample cases and praise for quality work communicate high expectations<br />
_ Publicly call attention to excellent performance by students<br />
<br />
7. How will the learning environment be structured to accommodate diverse talents and<br />
ways of learning?<br />
Provide means for students to ask for and receive assistance in understanding course materials<br />
_ Students seek assistance in understanding and mastering different learning strategies<br />
_ Encourage students to ask questions when they don’t understand<br />
_ Provide extra material or exercises for students who lack essential background, knowledge, or skills<br />
Consider assessing students’ learning styles in the beginning of the course:<br />
_ Find out about students’ backgrounds, learning styles, interests at the beginning of the semester<br />
_ Give a Myers-Briggs type learning style assessment in the beginning of class<br />
Be mindful of accessibility issues:<br />
_ Provide equal access to the shared conversation in the course <br />
_ Address accessibility issues: presentation of course materials complies with web accessibility standards as outlined by such entities as W3C, BOBBY, IDEA, ADA, WebAIM, the National Organization on Disability<br />
Create a welcoming, safe, nurturing online environment:<br />
_ Ensure that an equitable environment exists for gender differences in learning styles, reduction of barriers to participation and communication<br />
_ Include cooperative and collaborative learning to distribute workload through group and support female students’ preferred method of connected learning<br />
_ Promote gender equality by encouraging females to post messages while asking males to subside if a pattern of male domination is noticed<br />
_ Discourage snide remarks, sarcasm, kidding, and so forth, in chats<br />
Provide course content in a logical, consistent manner:<br />
_ Present course content in a manner that hierarchically structures the sequence of information<br />
_ Establish and maintain a consistent style for the course materials<br />
_ Content is presented in a logical progression<br />
_ Explain theory from a practical approach first, then add the structural approach<br />
_ Design with a consistent structure, easily discernible to students of varying learning styles<br />
Incorporate a variety of techniques for presenting course material:<br />
_ Provide a variety of communication techniques for students to use to enhance online learning<br />
_ Provide opportunities to collaboratively construct knowledge based on multiple perspectives, <br />
discussion, and reflection<br />
_ Enhance content by the use of affiliated tools such as discussion, links, notes, quizzes, audio, video, self tests, etc.<br />
_ Use visual and auditory stimuli to motivate students and address different learning styles<br />
_ Vary types of interaction<br />
_ Present and engage materials in a variety of ways<br />
_ Balance activities for all styles: books, hands on, visual, etc.<br />
_ Use diverse teaching activities to address a broad spectrum of studentsDeborah L. Popovicihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00026428885357985185noreply@blogger.com5tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5648944957694608174.post-17141589481566322492012-06-06T10:12:00.001-04:002012-06-06T10:12:02.024-04:00Online Training/Development for Andragogical InstructorsNote: Despite attempts to ensure best formatting, this site does not cooperate. I apologize for this issue.<br />
<br />
<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Abstract<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Novice or pre-service teachers are significantly concerned about
delivering successful online </span><span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">learning.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Although an ever-increasing selection of e-learning tools exists, and
processes to deploy them, more initial emphasis should be placed on teacher
preparedness, and identifying the skills needed to achieve the desired learner outcomes.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Using technologies with "bells and
whistles" cannot guarantee effective learning.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Likewise, effective teaching must include
plans for ongoing professional development, reflection upon one's teaching
strengths and weaknesses as well as a process for identifying and addressing
personal challenges to teaching adults online.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span></span><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><o:p> </o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Training in an Online Environment</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><o:p> </o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none;">
<span style="color: #231f20;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Teaching online requires faculty development that depends
upon employer and employee-centered responsibilities, which assures that faculty
are trained who use sound educational theory and principles for course
development and delivery (Barker, 2003, p. 278).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>"Faculty development activities are not
singular or sequential, but involve an ongoing commitment of time and money"
(Barker, 2003, p. 278) by the teaching facility, and the instructor. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Because designing and generating an online
faculty training program includes daily changes in technologies (Barker, 2003),
developing faculty and institutional course delivery systems quickly is
critical to successful e-learning.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The
Professional Development Plan (PDP) provides such utility.</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<b>Professional Development Plan (PDP)</b><b><o:p> </o:p></b></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<b><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></b><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">This paper addresses issues relative to
developing a PDP, and includes an assessment of </span><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">the strengths and
weaknesses that the PDP will take advantage of or resolve.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Maximizing the </span><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">development of
strengths would logically improve the instructor's teaching effectiveness.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Furthermore,
consideration of an instructor's specific challenges additionally affects
whether the </span><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">PDP contains a
complete set of elements that can secure successful learner outcomes.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>After </span><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><o:p> </o:p></span><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">identifying the
instructor's weaknesses, strengths, and challenges, the process to improve </span><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">online teaching
effectiveness can be devised.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Completing
the Career Development Plan </span><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Template is recommended as a first step, which is located at </span><a href="http://www.careers-advice-online.com/support-files/sample-career-development-plan-worksheet.pdf"><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="color: #005bc6;">http://www.careers-advice-online.com/support-files/sample-career-development-plan-worksheet.pdf</span></span></a><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none;">
<b><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></b><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Although Knowles, Holton, & Swanson
(2005) offer guidelines to be addressed later for instructors contemplating
professional development, developing a plan to facilitate improvements in some
of their "competencies" (p. 273) appears to list skills that may or
may not materialize (or be applicable) as part of a teaching assignment.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>That being said, a professional development
plan provided by an employer for an adjunct professor teaching adults online
should impute the following according to Hill (2008): an<b> "</b></span>effective,
integral and continuous opportunit(y) for professional growth" (p. 174),
which integrates "part-time instructors more fully into the university community,
instills a greater sense of commitment, and maintains consistency and rigor of
teaching and learning" (p. 174).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Likewise, Hewitt and Powers (2007) wrote that university employers
should employ "an increasing understanding of professional development and
teacher mentorship in online environments via theoretical and empirical research grounded in a practical appreciation of assessing
what works in various online settings" (p. 3).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Velez (2009) also encouraged a Community of
Practice within online institutions, which gives "<span style="color: black;">online
faculty a place where their stories are shared and their voices are heard"
(par. 7), and imparts an improved connectivity to others who also teach at one's
university.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none;">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Hewitt
and Powers (2007) wrote that instructors using "online media to teach and
train are insufficiently or non-optimally prepared for online work settings"
(p. 4) but can "self-select and determine their own readiness for online
instruction—a necessary first step for teaching effectively in online settings"
(p. 8).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>According to Hewitt and Powers
(2007), learning new technologies is a skill set specific to the
institution.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, additional caveats
include:</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none;">
Teaching
online involves a deepening knowledge of how students respond to and learn in online <span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>settings…(and) requires becoming a student again in the realm of
educational technology—listening to
our inner voices where, as learners in relatively uncharted learning environments, we alternatively
teach others and allow them to teach us. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Every encounter
with online teaching and learning thus becomes a sort of informational <span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>interview or experiential research project with
the online media, the course work, our own
pedagogies, and—of course—the students and their learning processes.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(p. 2)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none;">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Kennedy
(2010) reported that the International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE)
supports teachers' participation in local and global learning communities to
discover distinctive methods to improve student learning such as by individualizing
and personalizing <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>"activities and
assessments based on students' learning styles as well as promoting student reflection
for deeper, analytical understanding" (Kennedy, 2010, p. 23).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>When teachers individualize and personalize
instructional strategies, students become engaged with "real-world issues"
(p. 23), and begin thinking outside the box, which results in "authentic,
creative ways to solve problems using digital tools" (p. 23).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none;">
<span style="font-size: 11pt; line-height: 200%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></span>Another professional
development plan component could include a pairing with virtual school teachers
at institutions of higher learning such as at the Florida Virtual School, which
uses the pairing within an online learning environment for four to seven weeks
(Kennedy, 2010). <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The school's objective
is to impart knowledge to pre-service students about how to teach a traditional
class as well as a virtual class (Kennedy, 2010).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Teaching standards by the "SREB, iNACOL,
NEA, and ISTE" (Kennedy, 2010, p. 26) make certain that online students'
experiences are focused upon a quality learning experience, and clarifies
future guidelines in order for online instructors to "promote meaningful
learning in online and blended learning environments" (p. 26).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none;">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Santovic (2004) wrote that "experiential
learning — specifically having online educators use
online professional development — is successful in changing teaching
practices" (p. 4).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Experiential
learning improves instructors' abilities to develop online "time
management strategies,
is more likely to support a virtual practicum, and continues learning and reflecting
on their
practice" (Santovic, 2004, p. 4).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Interventions
affecting progressive development for <o:p> </o:p>teaching
online includes experience as an online learner, comfortably using technology,
and skill in managing and modifying technologies that appeal to
"one’s personality, content, style and other behavioral characteristics"
(Santovic, 2004, p. 4), all of which enable an online instructor to accept <span style="font-family: "ACaslon-Regular","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: ACaslon-Regular;">ownership
when using online environments.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Santovic
(2004) wrote that schools can </span>educate, inform and expand their visions by
<span style="font-family: "ACaslon-Regular","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: ACaslon-Regular;">preparing
instructors to teach online by encouraging self-assessment of "</span>beliefs
about teaching and the role of the teacher; providing hands-on learning opportunities;
modeling methods and capabilities of online environment for learning; expanding
the vision of what can be done and displaying the possibilities; and providing
administrative support" (p. 5). <b><o:p></o:p></b></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<b>Reflection of Online Teaching: Weaknesses</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>During the pursuit of three academic
online programs, observations of over 45 instructors' practices provide insight
relative to the issues impacting online teaching.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The most surprising and discomfiting component
employed by universities that provide an online education relates to
spoon-feeding curricular materials to instructors.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Such materials are chosen by universities to
assure that the learning modules meet with their accrediting agency's
requirements.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>"</span>For reasons
of…accreditation, it is incumbent upon institutions of higher learning to
support all instructors and nurture a professional learning community" (Hill,
2008, p. 176).<span style="font-family: "Verdana","sans-serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Necessitating very little if any course design by instructors, learning
is negatively impacted because the curriculum does not factor in an
instructor's expertise.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As reported by
Easton (2003), "</span>the instructor steps into a course that is already
developed, and then the role becomes one similar to the mentor’s" (p. 100).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Institutions that design and control
curriculums cause other issues that result in de-motivating learners: using
dated syllabi, textbooks, and e-tools, not fixing broken links, repeating
assignments from course to course, presenting assignments that do not reflect
required textbooks' information, and not using state-of-the-art technologies. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none;">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">In effect, instructors are not empowered to
change instructional practices as they see fit.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>An entire "practice" includes a welcome message to students,
assessment and grading of assignments that often includes prewritten commentary
(rather than being customized to the student), periodic solicited advice, and
posting of a final grade.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Such
institutional practices allude to schools that make cakes from scratch, and use
instructors to merely ice the finished products with icing that is already
formulated.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Other detractors for online
adjunct teaching include "</span>compensation issues, intellectual
property ownership issues, more work to develop and teach online (which is
possibly counterproductive to professional advancement), technical
difficulties; inadequate training, support, and the addition of new roles"
(Shea, 2007, p. 75).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none;">
<b>Reflection of Online Teaching: Strengths</b><b><o:p> </o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Strengths gained from
online learning include experience interacting with a variety of online
students and instructors, appreciation for the flexibility of online learning,
expanded knowledge base relative to online technologies, and expanded
opportunities for professional recognition and research (Shea, 2007).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As noted earlier, Knowles, Holton, &
Swanson (2005) proffered specific competencies that instructors need for
teaching adults.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As a non-practicing
online instructor, considering at length the competencies that could be
addressed in a professional development plan was an ambiguous effort.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Since completing a Master's in Education with
a specialty in Distance Education, and now being at the conclusion of the
required courses for a doctorate in education with a specialization in
e-learning, an assumption must be made that all of the instructional
competencies noted by Knowles et al. (2005) have to some extent been
gained.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Therefore, to devise a
professional development plan to augment the competencies seems secondary to
the greater objective, which is to practice teaching.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Every course and university where practice
might be conducted have their own customized systems in place.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Therefore, to provide a professional
development plan for competencies that my programs should have provided to me
at some extent carries less value to me than creating a PDP that encompasses
the other subjects addressed in this paper.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>To clarify, l</span>everaging the assistance of practicing instructors such
as mentors to increase my network, increasing the monitoring of the many online
job posting sites, and so forth as discussed next, are the components of my PDP
rather than a PDP to heighten competencies in skills that are already
competencies. <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<b>Identification and Plan to Address Personal Challenges</b><b><o:p> </o:p></b></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<b><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></b><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Naturally, the PDP must address personal challenges.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Two such challenges include not </span><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">teaching in a
traditional or online classroom, and lacking to date an opportunity to observe
an </span><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">online class before teaching such a class.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span>A study by Shea (2007) found that
"less experienced online teachers may be more dissuaded by their
unfamiliarity with effective online pedagogy, absence of face-to-face
interaction, lack of opportunity to observe online teaching before trying it,
lack of opportunity to experiment with online technology before adopting it,
and inadequate time to learn about online teaching suggests that future growth
and quality is contingent on the availability of training" (p. 84).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Leveraging the assistance of practicing
instructors such as mentors to increase my network, increasing the monitoring
of the many online job posting sites, and increasing activity in other online
teaching social networks will increase my potential in retaining an online
teaching post.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Increasing the
possibility of retaining an online teaching position also includes applying for
non-teaching online jobs in the educational field.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Retaining such a position even if
under-employed can provide opportunities for employers to use my educational
achievements, 35 years of work experience, and online technical expertise to fill
better positions, and help "less experienced online instructors to
confront the challenges they identify as demotivating" (Shea, 2007, p.
85).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<b>Process to Improve Online
Teaching Effectiveness</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none;">
<b><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></b><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Improving effectiveness as an online teacher
refers to improving learning outcomes.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><span class="medium-font">Addressing processes to improve
effectiveness requires a review of the latest </span>curriculum and teaching competencies (CTCs).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span class="medium-font">Villar and Alegre (2008)
discussed the knowledge emerging from innovative higher education institutes
relative to teaching educators, who were mostly interested in "a</span>ccessibility
to grades, online forum discussions and constant and immediate feedback"
(p. 170).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Teaching excellence equated with faculty
participating in voluntary CTC courses, which offered collaborative forum discussions
with colleagues, raised sensitivity levels regarding the diversity of learning
approaches, created a positive virtual environment, and helped instructors to
find the "deep meaning behind learning to teach" (Villar &
Alegre, 2008, p. 179).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Glahn and Gen (2002)
recommended that t</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">he next step needed
to </span><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">improve student achievement
is </span><span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">the "development,
implementation, and refinement of collaborative learning, learning communities,
and individual learning strategies" (p. 777).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span>Progenies from technological
innovations, and traditional practices in education is pushing educators and
administrators to relook at course design and delivery.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Many of the "contemporary enterprise
solutions for online course management" (Glahn & Gen, 2002, p. 777)
have resulted in a variety of teaching instruments becoming standardized.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As the
"current ad hoc nature of process innovation gives way to an emphasis in
structure, best practices, and the codification of those practices, the online
teaching delivery systems will become more rigid and their operation will
become formalized and universal" (Glahn & Gen, 2002, p. 777). <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Consequently, an online instructor's challenge
is to create better uses of existing e-tools as a means to understand, and
create process innovations that focus on andragogical instructional practices
(Glahn & Gen, 2002).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Teaching online
converts to spaces for social interactions, and shared learning.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Another technique to improve online teaching
effectiveness involves the "Just-in-Time" concept that requires
participants to perform pre-class activities, which increases student
preparedness for upcoming classes, and teacher preparedness due to student
feedback (Glahn & Gen, 2002).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Hill
(2008) suggested instructors improve teaching effectiveness by undergoing online
seminars, and taking advantage of professional development websites, which preserves
reliability and rigidity in student learning outcomes as gains are made in
improved teaching materials and resources as well as explicit, specialized
expertise.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As Hill (2008) explains,
full-time faculty members develop the curriculums, maintain courses, and
oversee participants' work, which includes:</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none;">
Focused
asynchronous discussion forums about university policies, curricular changes and developments, teaching adult
learners, online instructional methodologies, onsite classroom strategies and activities, or other issues
specifically related to the course<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>content
or assignments.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The asynchronous nature
of the discussions provides more consistent
opportunities for <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>participation, for
revisiting previous postings, deeper levels of
reflection, access to a broader spectrum of ideas, more concrete connections to
theory and practice, and more
ways for the facilitators to model higher order responses and offer clarification.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(p. 181)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Retaining
an online adjunct teaching position in the future, and being successful at
achieving effectiveness in teaching, should come after a sense of collegiality
with the potential employer is demonstrated.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span><span style="color: black;">When universities deliver a "sense of
belonging, and a sense of collegiality with the university and other faculty"
(Velez, 2009, par. 2), involve "faculty in academic decisions, and recognize
them in some way for a job well done" (par. 2), which is a challenge for virtual
universities, an instructor gains a supportive system.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Supporting faculty gains a strong
infrastructure that enables instructors to teach effectively.</span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; text-align: center;">
<span class="medium-font"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Conclusion</b></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<span class="medium-font"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Effective
and successful online teaching requires several considerations.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">This paper </span><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">addressed issues
relative to not only developing a PDP but also included a preliminary </span><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">assessment of the
strengths and weaknesses that a PDP would advantageously take </span><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">advantage of or
resolve.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Maximizing the development of
strengths would logically improve the </span><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">instructor's
teaching effectiveness.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Accepting a
personal responsibility for self-development </span><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">should remain at the
forefront for pre-service and practicing instructors.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Furthermore, a careful </span><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">consideration, and
ongoing reconsideration, of an instructor's specific challenges additionally </span><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">affects whether a
PDP encapsulates a complete portfolio of all factors that can affect </span><span style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">achieving successful learner outcomes.</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"><em> </em></span></span><span style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: 0.25pt;">"Success on any
major scale requires you to accept </span><span style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: 0.25pt;">responsibility . . . . In the final analysis, the one
quality that all successful people have is the </span><span style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; letter-spacing: 0.25pt;">ability to take on responsibility" (Korda, 1977, p.
14).</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: center;">
<span class="medium-font">References:</span><span class="medium-font"><o:p> </o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; tab-stops: 49.5pt;">
<a href="" name="Result_8"></a><a href="" name="Result_15"></a><a href="" name="Result_28"><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_15;"><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;"><span class="medium-font">Barker, A. (2003,
November/December). </span></span></span></a><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_28;"><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_15;"><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;"><span class="title-link-wrapper1"><span>Faculty </span></span><strong><span style="font-weight: normal; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">development</span></strong></span></span></span><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_28;"><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_15;"><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;"><span class="title-link-wrapper1"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span> </span></b></span></span></span></span><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_28;"><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_15;"><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;"><span class="title-link-wrapper1"><span>for </span></span><strong><span style="font-weight: normal; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">teaching</span></strong></span></span></span><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_28;"><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_15;"><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;"><span class="title-link-wrapper1"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span> </span></b></span><strong><span style="font-weight: normal; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">online</span></strong></span></span></span><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_28;"><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_15;"><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;"><span class="title-link-wrapper1"><span>: Educational </span></span></span></span></span><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_28;"><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_15;"><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;"><span class="title-link-wrapper1"><span>and technological issues.</span></span></span></span></span><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_15;"><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;"><span class="title-link-wrapper1"><span style="font-size: 16pt;"> </span></span><span class="medium-font"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Journal of Continuing
Education in Nursing</i>, 34(6), 273-278. </span></span></span><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_15;"><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;"><span class="medium-font">Retrieved from </span></span></span><a href="http://library.ncu.edu/proxy_login.aspx?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?authtype=ip,uid&profile=ehost&defaultdb=ehh" target="_blank"><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_15;"><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;"><span style="color: windowtext;">EBSCOhost Education Research Complete.</span></span></span><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_15;"><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;"><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; tab-stops: 49.5pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<span style="mso-bookmark: Result_15;"><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;"><a href="" name="Result_39">Easton, S.S. (2003, April). Clarifying the Instructor’s Role
in Online Distance Learning. </a></span></span><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_15;"><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;"><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_39;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Communication Education</i>, 52(2), 87–105. Retrieved from
http://www.wvu.edu/~itdc/</span></span></span></div>
<span style="mso-bookmark: Result_15;"><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;"><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_39;">resources/teaching/InstructorRole.pdf<span class="medium-font"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></span><br />
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<span style="mso-bookmark: Result_15;"><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;"><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_39;"><span class="medium-font">Glahn, R.,
& Gen, R. (2002, December). P</span></span></span></span><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_15;"><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;"><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_39;"><span class="title-link-wrapper1"><span>rogenies in education: The evolution of internet t</span></span></span></span></span><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_15;"><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;"><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_39;"><strong><span style="font-weight: normal; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">eaching</span></strong></span></span></span><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_15;"><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;"><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_39;"><span class="title-link-wrapper1"><span>.</span></span></span></span></span><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_15;"><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;"><span class="title-link-wrapper1"><span> </span></span><span class="medium-font"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Community College
Journal of Research & Practice</i>, 26(10), 777-785. </span></span></span><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_15;"><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;"><span class="medium-font"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;">R</span>etrieved from </span></span></span><a href="http://library.ncu.edu/proxy_login.aspx?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?authtype=ip,uid&profile=ehost&defaultdb=ehh" target="_blank"><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_15;"><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;"><span style="color: windowtext;">EBSCOHost Education Research Complete.</span></span></span><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_15;"><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;"><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span></span><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_15;"><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;"></span></span></a><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_15;"><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;"></span></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<span style="mso-bookmark: Result_15;"><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;"><span class="medium-font">Hewett, B.L., & Powers, C.E. (2007,
Winter). </span></span></span><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_15;"><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;"><span class="title-link-wrapper1"><span>Guest editors' introduction: </span></span><strong><span style="font-weight: normal; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Online</span></strong></span></span><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_15;"><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;"><span class="title-link-wrapper1"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span> </span></b></span><strong><span style="font-weight: normal; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">teaching</span></strong></span></span><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_15;"><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;"><span class="title-link-wrapper1"><span> and </span></span></span></span><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_15;"><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;"><span class="title-link-wrapper1"><span>learning:
Preparation, </span></span><strong><span style="font-weight: normal; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">development</span></strong></span></span><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_15;"><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;"><span class="title-link-wrapper1"><span>, and organizational communication.</span></span></span></span><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;"><span class="title-link-wrapper1"><span> T</span></span><span class="medium-font"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">echnical </i></span></span><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;"><span class="medium-font"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Communication Quarterly</i>, 16(1), 1-11. Retrieved
from </span>EBSCOHost Education </span><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;">Research Complete.<u> </u><span class="medium-font"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;"><a href="" name="Result_19"><span class="medium-font">Hill, R.A. (2008, March). </span></a></span><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;"><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_19;"><span class="title-link-wrapper1"><span>Strengthening </span></span><strong><span style="font-weight: normal; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">teaching</span></strong></span></span><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;"><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_19;"><span class="title-link-wrapper1"><span> communities through </span></span><strong><span style="font-weight: normal; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">online</span></strong></span></span><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;"><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_19;"><span class="title-link-wrapper1"><span> professional </span></span></span></span><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;"><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_19;"><strong><span style="font-weight: normal; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">development</span></strong></span></span><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;"><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_19;"><span class="title-link-wrapper1"><span style="font-size: 16pt;">.</span></span></span></span><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;"><span class="title-link-wrapper1"><span style="font-size: 16pt;"> </span></span><span class="medium-font"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Journal of Research in Innovative </i></span><strong><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-weight: normal; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Teaching</span></i></strong><span class="medium-font">, 1(1), 174-186.
Retrieved </span></span><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;"><span class="medium-font">from </span></span><a href="http://library.ncu.edu/proxy_login.aspx?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?authtype=ip,uid&profile=ehost&defaultdb=ehh" target="_blank"><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;"><span style="color: windowtext;">EBSCOhost
Education Research Complete.</span></span><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;"><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;"></span></a><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;"><span class="medium-font"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;"><span class="medium-font">Kennedy,
K. (2010). </span></span><a href="" name="Result_18"><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;"><span class="title-link-wrapper1"><span>Cross-reference of </span></span><strong><span style="font-weight: normal; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">online</span></strong></span></a><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_18;"><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;"><span class="title-link-wrapper1"><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span> </span></b></span><strong><span style="font-weight: normal; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">teaching</span></strong></span></span><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_18;"><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;"><span class="title-link-wrapper1"><span> standards and the </span></span><strong><span style="font-weight: normal; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">development</span></strong></span></span><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_18;"><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;"><span class="title-link-wrapper1"><span> of</span></span></span></span><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_18;"><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;"><span class="title-link-wrapper1"><span style="font-size: 16pt;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>quality
teachers for 21st century learning environments</span>.</span></span></span></span><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;"><span class="title-link-wrapper1"><span style="font-size: 16pt;"> </span></span><span class="medium-font"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Distance Learning</i>, 7(2), 21-</span></span><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;"><span class="medium-font">28.
Retrieved from </span></span><a href="http://library.ncu.edu/proxy_login.aspx?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?authtype=ip,uid&profile=ehost&defaultdb=ehh" target="_blank">E<span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;"><span style="color: windowtext;">BSCOhost
Education Research Complete.</span></span><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;"><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;"></span></a><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;"></span></div>
<br />
K<span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;"><a href="" name="Result_43"><span style="color: black; letter-spacing: 0.25pt;">nowles, M.S.,
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resource development</span></i><span style="color: black; letter-spacing: 0.25pt;">.
Burlington, </span></span></span><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;"><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_43;"><span style="color: black; letter-spacing: 0.25pt;">MA:
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<span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;"><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_43;"><span style="color: black; letter-spacing: 0.25pt;">Korda,
M. (1977). <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Success!</i> Retrieved from <a href="http://www.leadershipnow.com/responsibilityquotes.html">http://www.leadershipnow.com/</a></span><a href="http://www.leadershipnow.com/responsibilityquotes.html"></a></span><a href="http://www.leadershipnow.com/responsibilityquotes.html"></a></span><a href="http://www.leadershipnow.com/responsibilityquotes.html"><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;"><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_43;"><span style="color: black; letter-spacing: 0.25pt;">responsibilityquotes.html</span></span></span></a><span class="medium-font"><o:p></o:p></span><br />
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<span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;"><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_43;"><span class="medium-font">Santovec, M.L. (2004, September 15). </span></span></span><a href="http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/viewarticle?data=dGJyMPPp44rp2%2fdV0%2bnjisfk5Ie46a9KsK%2bzS66k63nn5Kx95uXxjL6srUytqK5JsJa1UrKsuEu1lr9lpOrweezp33vy3%2b2G59q7TLOttlGypq5LpOLfhuWz44ak2uBV497mPvLX5VW%2fxKR57LOvTLOotUq1qKR%2b7ejrefKz5I3q4vJ99uoA&hid=110" title="Doing Online Professional Development -- Online."><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;"><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_43;"><span style="color: #005bc6;">Doing </span></span></span><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;"><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_43;"><strong><span style="color: windowtext; font-weight: normal; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">online</span></strong><span style="color: #005bc6;">
professional </span></span></span><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;"><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_43;"><strong><span style="color: windowtext; font-weight: normal; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">development</span></strong><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: #005bc6;"> -- </span></b></span></span><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;"><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_43;"><strong><span style="color: windowtext; font-weight: normal; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">online</span></strong><span style="color: #005bc6;">.</span></span></span><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;"><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_43;"></span></span></a><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_43;"></span><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;"><span class="title-link-wrapper1"><span style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 200%;"> </span></span></span><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;"><span class="medium-font"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Distance </i></span></span><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;"><span class="medium-font"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Education
Report</i>, 8(18), 4-7. Retrieved from </span>EBSCOhost Education </span><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;">Research Complete.<u> </u></span><br />
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<span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;">Shea, P. (2007, July). Bridges
and barriers to <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">teaching</span> <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">online</span> college courses: A study of </span><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;">experienced <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">online</span> faculty in thirty-six colleges.
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Journal of Asynchronous Learning </i></span><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Networks</i>,
11(2), 73-128. <span class="medium-font">Retrieved from </span></span><a href="http://library.ncu.edu/proxy_login.aspx?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?authtype=ip,uid&profile=ehost&defaultdb=ehh" target="_blank"><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;"><span style="color: windowtext;">EBSCOhost
Education Research Complete.</span></span><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;"><span style="color: windowtext;"> </span></span><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;"></span></a><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;"></span></div>
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<span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-font-kerning: 18.0pt;">Velez, A.M. (2009,
Summer). The ties that bind: How faculty learning communities connect </span></span><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-font-kerning: 18.0pt;">online adjuncts to their
virtual institutions. </span><i>Online Journal of Distance Learning </i></span><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;"><i>Administration, </i><span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">XII(II). Retrieved from </span><a href="http://www.westga.edu/~distance/ojdla/summer122/velez122.html">http://www.westga.edu/~distance/ojdla/</a></span><a href="http://www.westga.edu/~distance/ojdla/summer122/velez122.html"><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;">summer122/velez122.html</span></a></div>
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<span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;"><span class="medium-font">Villar,
L.M., & Alegre, O.M. (2008, August). </span></span><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;"><span class="title-link-wrapper1"><span>Measuring
faculty learning in curriculum and </span></span></span><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;"><strong><span style="font-weight: normal; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">teaching </span></strong></span><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;"><span class="title-link-wrapper1"><span>competence </span></span><strong><span style="font-weight: normal; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">online</span></strong></span><span style="mso-bookmark: Result_8;"><span class="title-link-wrapper1"><span> courses.</span></span></span><span class="title-link-wrapper1"><span> </span></span><span class="medium-font"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Interactive Learning
Environments</i>, 16(2), 169-</span><span class="medium-font"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>181. Retrieved from </span><a href="http://library.ncu.edu/proxy_login.aspx?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?authtype=ip,uid&profile=ehost&defaultdb=ehh" target="_blank"><span>EBSCOhost Education Research
Complete. </span></a><a href="" name="Result_14"><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><o:p></o:p></span></a></div>
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<br /></div>Deborah L. Popovicihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00026428885357985185noreply@blogger.com4tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5648944957694608174.post-75251167384286729882012-05-27T14:22:00.000-04:002012-05-28T11:54:37.516-04:00The differences between pedagogy and andragogy: Implications for online learning and teachingResearch indicates that pedagogy has two definitions: the
science or profession of teaching, and the Greek derivation of the art and
science of teaching children.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Andragogy,
on the other hand, appears to be defined as the science or profession of
teaching adults.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In any case, a review
of prior research may help to solve this issue by providing a means to
differentiate between the two terms, and the three definitions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br />
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
Knowles
(1980) explained that adults "want to be able to apply whatever knowledge and
skill they gain today to living more effectively tomorrow, learning experiences
should be organized around competency-development categories, and adults are performance-centered
in their orientation to learning" (Knowles, 1980, p. 44).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>On the other hand, pedagogy explains that
"learners see education as a process of acquiring subject matter content"
(Knowles, 1980, p. 44) to be used in the future.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>"Curriculums should be organized into
subject matter units, (and learners) are subject-centered in their orientation
to learning " (Knowles, 1980, p. 44).<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></div>
<br />
When
teaching adults, "the psychological climate should be one which causes adults
to feel accepted, respected, and supported; in which there exists a spirit of mutuality
between teachers and students as joint inquirers; in which there is freedom of
expression without fear of punishment or ridicule" (Knowles, 1980, p. 47).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Due to "the adult's self-concept of
self-directivity, andragogical practice treats the learning-teaching
transaction as the mutual responsibility of learners and teacher" (Knowles,
1980, p. 44).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Consequently, the instructor's
role becomes that of a "procedural technician, resource person, and co-inquirer (Knowles, 1980, p. 44).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Wisely, Knowles (1980) noted that when one
adult judges another, a childlike treatment emerges, which carries with it "disrespect
and dependency" (p. 48).<br />
<br />
Adults'
experiences represent "richer resources for learning than is true of
children" (Knowles, 1980, p. 50).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Instructors often use teaching techniques that "tap the experience
of the adult learners" (Knowles, 1980, p. 50).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For example, activities can include group
discussions, case methods, "the critical-incident process, simulation
exercises, role playing, skill-practice exercises, field projects, action
projects, laboratory methods, consultative supervision, demonstration, seminars,
work conferences, counseling, group therapy, and community development"
(Knowles, 1980, p. 50).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Knowles (1980)
noted that during the developmental tasks used to instruct children, a
"readiness to learn" (or teachable moment) arises.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Curiously, adult learners also have
"phases of growth and resulting developmental tasks" (Knowles, 1980,
p. 51): "the developmental tasks of youth tend to be the products
primarily of physiological and mental maturation while those of the adult years
are the products primarily of the evolution of social roles" (p. 51).<br />
<br />
"Children
start fairly early to see themselves as being self-directing in broadening
areas of their lives; they start accumulating experience that has increasing
value for learning; they start preparing for social roles (such as through
part-time jobs) and therefore experience adultlike readinesses to learn; and
they encounter life problems for which they would like some learnings
for immediate application" (Knowles, 1980, p. 58). <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Consequently, "many of the principles of
andragogy have direct relevance to the education of children and youth"
(Knowles, 1980, p. 58).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Challenging
children to progress at a rate they are capable of, and assimilating them more
freely into andragogical learning, creates a new paradigm for teaching and
learning.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The new paradigm could better
define how e-learning tools might improve learning for children and adults. <o:p> </o:p><br />
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none;">
Supporting
such a paradigm was considered by Goodmurphy, Branton, Callens, & Gedies (2000)
who wrote that "four of andragogy's five key assumptions apply equally to
adults and children. The sole difference is that children have fewer
experiences and pre-established beliefs than adults and thus have less to
relate." Differences between children and adult learners becomes less noticeable,
and "similarities become more cohesive in and among all learning
groups--namely adult learners and children" (Goodmurphy et al., 2000, p.
6). <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>"Andragogical learners still
prefer an andragogical approach with elements of pedagogy included while
pedagogical learners still prefer a pedagogical approach with elements of
andragogy included (Goodmurphy et al., 2000, p. 6). <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Such an opinion calls out for further
research.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In the meantime, childhood and
adult instructors could collaborate so that their feedback could benefit
improving learning in secondary schools, especially for children ready and able
to learn.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>"<span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Andragogy informs us that adults, and many would argue all
learners, bring experience, varied needs and expectations, and personal
motivation to the learning experience, which supports a learner-centered
approach to education" (Goodmurphy et al., 2000, p. 6). </span><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p> </o:p></span></div>
<br />
Holmes
and Abington-Cooper (2000) discussed three myths typically associated with
self-directed learning: "adults are naturally self-directed, when, in
reality, their capability for self-directed learning may vary widely; self-direction
is an all-or-nothing concept" (par. 29). <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The second myth is that "adults have
varying degrees of willingness or ability to assume personal responsibility for
learning, (and) choose their own goals, objectives, degree of participation, learning
content, learning method, and assessments" (Holmes and Abington-Cooper,
2000, par. 29). <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The third myth is that "self-directed
learning means learning in isolation; however, the essential dimension of
self-directed learning may be psychological control that a learner can exert in
any solitary, informal, or traditional setting" (Holmes and
Abington-Cooper, 2000, par. 29) .<o:p> </o:p><br />
<br />
Holmes
and Abington-Cooper (2000) wrote that "adult education could survive quite
nicely without andragogy, but that there is some merit in redefining the term,
clarifying it conceptually, and testing it empirically" (par. 29). <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Apparently, an inconsistency between pedagogy
and andragogy was presented by Knowles (Holmes and Abington-Cooper, 2000).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Relooking at the two terms could
substantially improve the teaching strategies used for children and adults, and
further explore the over-lapping that exists between the two groups.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Every opportunity should be adopted as soon
as possible to take advantage of children transitioning to adult learning
methods.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Maximizing learning outcomes is
achievable when learners are ready to learn rather than waiting until a
particular age arrives. <br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none;">
</div>
References:<o:p> </o:p><br />
<br />
Goodmurphy,
M., Branton, B., Callens, P., & Gedies, T. (2000). <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Andragogical and pedagogical
differences relative to their interfacing with internet resources</span></i><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">. Retrieved from </span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none;">
http://cclp.mior.ca/Reference%20Shelf/PDF_OISE/andragogical%20pedagogical%20differences.pdf</div>
<br />
Holmes,
G., & Abington-Cooper, M. (Summer/Fall 2000). <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">P<span style="color: black;">edagogy vs. andragogy: A false dichotomy?</span></i><span style="color: black;"> </span>Retrieved from http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/JOTS/Summer-Fall-2000/holmes.html<br />
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none;">
Knowles,
M.S. (1980). The modern practice of adult education, from pedagogy to andragogy.
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Journal of Technology Studies</i>, 26(2).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Retrieved from <a href="http://www.hospitalist.cumc/">http://www.hospitalist.cumc</a>.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none;">
columbia.edu/downloads/cc4_articles/Education%20Theory/Andragogy.pdf</div>Deborah L. Popovicihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00026428885357985185noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5648944957694608174.post-3587953092815123502012-05-14T11:54:00.000-04:002012-05-14T19:05:49.529-04:00Pedagogical Integration of Technology with Curriculums in a Traditional Hawaiian Classroom<span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> The <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">kumu</i>
(teachers) Gibson and Puniwai designed a prototype course in cooperation with
the </span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Center for Gifted and Talented Native Hawaiian Children, which is a center
for "increasing the </span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">educational enrichment opportunities for Native
Hawaiian Children" (Gibson and Puniwai, 2006, p.</span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">288). Native Hawaiians
view all children as gifted (Gibson, et al, p. 288). Three key elements </span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">represent
the Hawaiian children's educational experience: "the sense of self, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">ohana</i> (family), and </span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Native Hawaiian
perspective (culture)" (Gibson, et al, p. 288). Gibson's and Puniwai's
(2006) </span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">archetype proposed integration of Hawaiian Traditional Knowledge (H.T.K.)
with Earth system </span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">science exposing "students to geospatial technologies"
using a "global positioning system (G.P.S.)" </span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">and "a geographic
information system (G.I.S.)" (Gibson, et al, p. 289). Discussion related
to </span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Gibson's and Puniwai's project ensues, which reviews pertinent strategies
supporting the </span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">technological integration with H.T.K., potential challenges, how
the curriculum and technological </span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">standards were integrated and complimented
each other, and observations by Gibson and Puniwai, </span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">which summarize the
effectiveness of implementing the curriculum with new technologies. <o:p></o:p></span><br />
<br />
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; tab-stops: 27.0pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Curriculum Content<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; tab-stops: 27.0pt;">
<span style="line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The proposed curriculum consists of
Earth system science, traditional (indigenous) knowledge, and geospatial
technologies. Indigenous knowledge is the curriculum that Gibson and Puniwai
(2006) suggest could "create a pathway to attract more indigenous peoples
(in the Pacific Rim) into the geosciences" (Gibson, et al, p. 289). Twelve
students between the ages of 13 and 15 of Hawaiian ancestry were initially
trained on hand-held G.P.S. devices to map and locate specific geographic
points at the University of Hawaii (Gibson, et al, p. 289), and included
discovery of various ecological and geological formations on the campus. The
students and teachers then visited the Keaukaha Lake's shoreline for the
course's marine component to map different animal and plant habitats. The
teachers arranged for a Native Hawaiian shoreline caretaker (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">kahu</i>) to join the group to enrich the
students with H.T.K., which included cultural information, and Native Hawaiian
science details about the "tidal flux, wave action, ocean currents, living
organisms, and geology" (Gibson, et al, p. 290). The students used
"her verbal map as a guide", and explored the habitat's "tidal
pools, splash zone, fish ponds, and mixed rocky/sandy beaches" (Gibson, et
al, p. 290). Gibson and Puniwai then explained "geological formations,
composition of sand, coral reef formation, tidal influence and many other
topics" (Gibson, et al, p. 290) to the students mixing native Hawaiian
knowledge with science.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; tab-stops: 27.0pt;">
<span style="line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The terrestrial part of the curriculum
included "field-based, service learning" at the Hakalau Forest
National Wildlife Refuge. Cultural content for this curriculum portion included
teaching the students an <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">'oli komo</i>
(chant), which calls upon ancestors "to watch over and grant blessings,
knowledge, and good judgment" (Gibson and Puniwai, 2006, p. 290).
Additionally, the teachers shared information about how the students' ancestors
used the forest's resources, and how geoscience topics (hydrology, erosion, and
runoff) related to those resources and culture (Gibson, et al, p. 290). G.P.S.
devices were employed and students recorded data located on existing plant
labels. The data was later input by the students on computers to create a
"shapefile of the plant locations" (Gibson, et al, p. 291), and
provided to the United States Forestry personnel, who updated their records.
Outcomes and assessments were conducted at class-end.</span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; tab-stops: 27.0pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Strategies
Supporting Technological Integration</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; tab-stops: 27.0pt;">
<span style="line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Those living in the Pacific Rim are
"among the most vulnerable to climate change" (Gibson and Puniwai,
2006, p. 287). Two potential geoscience threats exist for those living in the
Pacific Rim: low-lying populated islands experiencing a small sea level rise
and complete inundation, and the fresh water supply in the nearby populated
areas not flooded, which becomes compromised by infiltrating sea water (Gibson,
et al, 2006). Consequently, a keen desire emerged by natives in the Pacific Rim
to more fully understand and monitor environmental changes, and reduce the
impact of weather-related risks for the living (Gibson and Puniwai, 2006). <span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Assimilating traditional environmental
knowledge of Pacific Rim natives with modern- day geoscience technology
effectively delivers a "culturally appropriate" teaching and learning
model (Gibson, et al, p. 287). Designing a teaching and learning model infused
with tradition, culture, and area history together with modern-day geoscience
technologies should promote heightened interest in minorities of the Pacific
Rim who seldom enter "geoscience-related professions" (Gibson, et al,
p. 287). </span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; tab-stops: 27.0pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Potential
Challenges</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; tab-stops: 27.0pt;">
<span style="line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Numerous challenges exist for integrating
N.H.K. with geoscience. For example, people questioning credibility related to
its purpose might ask, "Why change what has worked well for
generations?" Difficulties between English and Hawaiian languages pose
problems between the native students and the teachers. Another challenge
includes training students on expensive new technological devices, which may be
financially unfeasible. Traditional (indigenous) knowledge depends upon a
"qualitative understanding of the whole Earth, to Western Science, which
commonly requires quantitative data on parts of the Earth system (Gibson and
Puniwai, 2006, p. 288). Many Native Hawaiians perceive "that their
traditional knowledge is contradictory to Western science" (Gibson, et al,
p. 289). Completely diverse philosophies would struggle for supremacy rather
than equivocal complimentary positions. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; tab-stops: 27.0pt;">
<span style="line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Armstrong, Henson, and Savage (2009)
wrote that "Existing practices are preserved not only by technologies that
allow no alternatives but also by tradition" (Armstrong, et al, p. 288).
Static traditions and technologies disallow progress or potentially improved
learner outcomes. "New technologies provide opportunities, but not
mandates, for change" (Armstrong, et al, p. 289). Although some Hawaiians
are willing to endorse new technology in collaboration with their native skills
because native skills do not fully protect them from harm from the climactic
changes, and technology can improve the number of saved lives by providing
earlier bad weather warnings, willingness does not preclude successful
implementation. The "technology usage gap is closing between Whites and
Asian Americans/Pacific Islanders" (Armstrong, et al, p. 303), and the
closure of this digital divide (Armstrong, et al, p. 302) will be expensive.
Finally, students must be willing to learn. If students are not willing,
teachers need to convince students to be willing to learn. However, conflicts
between tradition and science may be difficult to surmount.</span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; tab-stops: 27.0pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Curriculum
and Technological Standards' Integration and Complimentary Aspects</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; tab-stops: 27.0pt;">
<span style="line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Teaching geoscience and infusing
typical "community-based activities, cultural knowledge, and a
'place-based' approach" (Gibson and Puniwai, 2006, p. 289) significantly
narrowed the gap between teaching Western Science and embracing Hawaiian's
traditional knowledge. The melding of "traditional qualitative knowledge
and cultural perspectives with quantitative (Western) Earth system
science" (Gibson, et al, p. 289) was successful. Four elements improving
the students' learning comfort levels included: (1) building upon a
"student's interest and ability", (2) "helping and promoting the
student's sense of self as related to their perspective of family, culture, and
community", (3) integrating "Native Hawaiian culture and values into
the education and learning process", and (4) "focusing on the
influence of family" (Gibson, et al, p. 289). </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; tab-stops: 27.0pt;">
<span style="line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>A trial class was conducted for testing
assimilation of the Native H.T.K. with general geoscience information, and
global positioning and mapping devices, which most students adapted to easily.
Puniwai (Gibson, et al, p. 289), in addition to teaching geoscience, was a
helper who "was responsible for integrating Hawaiian culture into the
course" (Gibson, et al, p. 289). "Fostering inquiry about Earth
system processes that Native Hawaiian children observe daily can create that
critical link between science and traditional knowledge" (Gibson, et al, p.
290). Gibson and Puniwai (2006) successfully created that critical link. </span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; tab-stops: 27.0pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Educators'
Methods for Observing Effective Implementation</span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; tab-stops: 27.0pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">of
Curriculum and Technology</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; tab-stops: 27.0pt;">
<span style="line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Gibson and Puniwai (2006) assessed the
effectiveness of their two-week course by measuring how the students rated
three questions, which mirrored the class' objectives: how well the students felt
that their abilities improved, "did they learn 'things' Hawaiian?"
(Gibson and Puniwai, 2006, p. 292), and whether they felt "good about the
class overall" (Gibson, et al, p. 292). In addition, the teachers observed
student presentations about what they learned, which included technical data
and maps, and reviewed students' comments reflecting very successful learning.
An increase in the students' technical ability of the G.P.S. device and
PowerPoint software was demonstrated, and an end-of-course survey revealed a
"modest to successful (learning) impact" (Gibson, et al, p. 292),
which was enhanced due to the students' proficiency in Hawaiian and English
languages. Eighty percent of the students responded between "good"
and "excellent" about the course overall, and since no student
remarked negatively about the course, the teachers interpreted the students'
appraisals to mean that they "had taken some measure of learning and new
knowledge with them" (Gibson, et al, p. 293). </span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; tab-stops: 27.0pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Conclusion</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; tab-stops: 27.0pt;">
<span style="line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>This evaluation of a pilot geoscience course
created and conducted by Gibson and Puniwai</span><span style="line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">(</span><span style="line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">2006) describes the curriculum
content for a group of Hawaiian students who are deeply engrained </span><span style="line-height: 200%; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">in
traditional island folklore. Additionally presented were the </span><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">strategies
supporting the course's </span><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">technological integration with H.T.K., the potential
challenges for course implementation, and the </span><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">integration and complimentary
natures between the curriculum and geoscience technology. The </span><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">effectiveness achieved
when implementing the curriculum with geoscience technology concludes the</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; tab-stops: 27.0pt;">
<span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">
evaluation.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; tab-stops: 27.0pt;">
References:</div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; tab-stops: 49.5pt;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Armstrong, D., Henson, K., and Savage, T. (2009). <em>Teaching
today, an introduction to education,
8th Ed</em>. Pearson, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
Gibson, B., and Puniwai, N. (2006). Developing an archetype
for integrating native Hawaiian <span style="mso-tab-count: 1;">t</span>raditional
knowledge with earth system science education. <em>Journal of Geoscience Education</em>,
54(3). Proquest Education Journals. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<br /></div>Deborah L. Popovicihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00026428885357985185noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5648944957694608174.post-52258089639454819572012-05-10T12:46:00.001-04:002012-05-10T12:46:43.506-04:00Andragogical Principle: Motivation--Implications for Designing and Delivering Online TeachingAbstract<br /><br />Motivational influencers affecting adult online learners are complex, and sometimes obscure especially considering that every adult’s quality of learning is individual, and impacted by experential effects. Furthermore, every adult uses a different learning theory. Accepting that instructional best practices, and andragogical (self-directed learning) principles are going to influence learning according to past results can cause an extraordinary level of disappointment for the instructor and adult learner. With online learning technologies rapidly changing, yesterday’s andragogical principles cannot be expected to motivate students to learn as expected by even the most expert online teacher. Instructors who fail to analyze, adapt, implement, and reflect upon the impact from e-tools can fail before they begin.<br /><br />Motivation of the Adult Learner <br /><br />Why is external motivation needed for an adult to learn? Is not an internal motivation to gain knowledge enough for an adult to achieve the intended learning? As Thompson and Deis (2004) explain, learning is an “iterative, dynamic process of change, dependent on the learner’s self-efficacy to take responsibility for his or her own learning” (p. 108). Self-motivaters can rapidly cause adults to become discouraged such as when learning progress is slower than the adult learner’s expectations, the instructor’s support does not provide the minimum required by the learner or unexpected personal and/or professional responsibilities intercede periodically, which impacts learning efficiency at differing degrees (Thompson and Deis, 2004). Supporting a good level of self-motivators is achieved by learning activities that include joint input from a facilitator and a learner using reflection and analysis, integrating new activities, and then repeating reflection and analysis (Thompson and Deis, 2004). Following below is an explanation of the andragogical principles, motivational concerns applicable to the andragogical principles, and andragogical principles’ implications for online design and delivery of adult learning.<br /><br />Principles of Andragogy as a Learning Theory Explained<br /><br />Thompson and Deis (2004) summarized Knowles’ principles of andragogy: adult learners’ perception of self-concept transposes from dependence to self-directed, experential knowledge increasingly contributes to a student’s learning resources, developmental tasks required for a learner’s social identity are grounded by the learner’s readiness to learn, and time orientation related to new knowledge application shifts from a “use-later” application to “need-to-use-now” application, which causes a transition of the learner’s orientation of subject-centeredness to the preferred problem-centeredness orientation. Motivational constraints arise as adults begin transitioning toward self-direction and a problem-centered orientation, begin applying experential knowledge to new learning, a learner’s readiness to learn becomes muffled, and timeliness for applying new knowledge degrades. These transitional elements affecting each learner at differing degrees must be addressed when designing and delivering online teaching if learning activities successfully adapt to the learner’s needs.<br /><br />Motivational Concerns Applicable to Andragogical Principles<br /><br />Thompson and Deis (2004) assert that assessments provide adults with an evaluative tool, which provides motivation, feedback, self-awareness, empowerment, and a “richer, deeper learning experience” (p. 110). Assessment supports another of the andragogical principles, which is that “developmental tasks required for a learner’s social identity are grounded by the learner’s readiness to learn” (Thompson and Deis, 2004, p. 108). If developmental tasks inclusive of assessment components are not included in the online adult learners’ curriculum, there is a very significant lost opportunity for motivating learning. Thompson and Deis (2004) wrote that the andragogical principle referring to the transition from theory to practice with a focus on problems rather than content explains that “successful education will relate theory to practice, and advocate bringing ‘real world’ opportunities into the classroom” (p. 109).<br /><br />Clardy (2001) presented an alternative approach that “seeks to avoid the demotivating conditions of pedagogy and the denuded substance of andragogy through the use of (synergogical) self-directing learning teams” (p. 20), which use “highly participative, self-directed learning activities” (Clardy, 2001, p. 20). Clardy (2001) wrote that andragogical principles may provide increased motivation. However, improved motivation results in decreased “substantive content and learning…(and) implies a uniformity to adult learner needs and motivation that masks important individual differences between learners” (p. 20) as well as “imputes to adults more capability for and interest in self-directed learning than is likely” (p. 20).<br /><br />Clardy’s (2001) analysis of the andragogical principle is based purely upon a review of Knowles’ and other literature rather than an empirical study. Clardy (2001) wrote that Knowles’ andragogical theory inadequately identified types of adult learning situations” (p. 31), is resplendent with “radical subjectivism” (p. 20), and suffers from a number of problems in explaining learning effectiveness for adults. Because improved motivation comes a decrease in “substantive content and learning” (Clardy, 2001, p. 20), Clardy (2001) suggests, and this writer agrees, that further study of the andragogical principles should be examined further. Whether labeled andragogy or synergogy, strategies to motivate adult learners should not contradict with learning principles that result in poorer learning as Clardy (2001) suggested.<br /><br />Houde (2006) wrote that scholars increasingly propose that Knowles’ atheoretical andragogical principles, which are grounded by “observation and experience, rather than logical postulates and/or empirical research” (p. 90), and considered an “artifact from a mechanistic intellectual frame” (p. 90), be validated. Houde (2006) recommends that validation be accomplished by using two theories: “socioemotional selectivity (focusing on individuals’ relationship with time, goals and emotions), and the self-determination theory (a needs-based theory that proposes an inherent growth drive centering on…autonomy, competence and relatedness)” (p. 90). Houde (2006) explains that the andragogical principle relative to motivation assumes that adults’ external motivators consist of improved jobs, increased salaries, and so forth. Internal motivators include aspirations for enhanced job satisfaction, improved self-esteem, quality of life, and so forth. Houde’s (2006) article addresses the importance of validating the andragogical principle identified as motivation. By using the two theories noted above to identify and assess tools for motivating adult learners, instructors can integrate improved and well grounded teaching methods to gain advanced learning.<br /><br />Andragogical Principles’ Implications for Online Design and Delivery of Adult Learning <br /><br />“Superior andragogical learning conditions should motivate the learners to feel a need to learn” (Thompson and Deis, 2004, p. 108). Those learning conditions should enable “maximum flexibility and student self-governance” (Thompson and Deis, 2004, p. 108). Therefore, the design and delivery of online curriculums should provide opportunities to gain self-governance, which mirrors the andragogical principle that supports an adult learner’s self-concept transitioning from one of dependence to self-directed. Such an opportunity would enable learners to plan and process assignments without using mandated guidelines as to how the learning outcomes would be achieved. For example, “domain-oriented design environments…allow learners (who are) provided contextualized support to engage in their own problems, and exploit breakdowns as opportunities for learning” (EduTech Wiki, 2009, par. 3). The domain-oriented design allows learners to “create new artifacts and understand existing ones, they tailor instruction to serve the accomplishment of the task at hand, and they do this without disrupting or otherwise interfering with the task” (Fischer, n.d., par. 3).<br /><br />Thompson and Deis (2004) indicated that another andragogical principle underscores a need for curriculums that “allow learners to rely on themselves as resources of learning” (p. 108). Instructors who automatically provide resources and internet links to learners with directions to integrate information from those resources to the assigned activities opposes one of the andragogical principles: learners should increasingly contribute experential knowledge to the learner’s portfolio of resources. Consequently, the design and delivery of e-learning should provide for use of the learner’s previous experiences and practical skills. For example, a case study presented on web pages, and discussed in conferencing groups, draws upon learners’ past experiences, designed to appeal to the learners’ interests and experiences, and ties into the learning concepts (Illinois Online Network, 2010).<br /><br />Thompson and Deis (2004) advocated that “successful education relates theory to practice, and advocates bringing ‘real world’ opportunities into the classroom” (p. 109). The “real world” opportunities are provided to adult learners through “simulations, cases, technology, and collaborative learning opportunities between educational institutions and business” (p. 109). Any of these examples or a mix can be integrated into the online learning environment.<br /><br />An article by Gibbons and Wentworth (2001) advises that e-tools using a discussion forum encourages critical thinking, and ties into “nontraditional learners’ current life tasks and problems” (par. 16). Non-traditional e-learning techniques and processes that support the development of self-motivation in the adult learner significantly influences academic achievement (Gibbons and Wentworth, 2001). Asynchronous discussion forums provide learners with more of an opportunity to reflect and revise before responding to peers.<br /><br />A study by Cercone (2008) provides 13 recommendations for developing online courses based upon the andragogical principles. For example, an instructional design that supports learners’ active involvement in learning includes activities that require learners to formulate their learning objectives, and learn skills of inquiry, decision-making, and self-regulation. Embedding learning content within authentic context, requiring learners to create and problem-solve, periodically reflecting upon and revising learning goals, infusing conflicting theoretical resources into activities, requiring reflection about summarized experiences, and using learning contracts, case studies, and simulations to stimulate self-directed learning all aid in motivating adult learners (Cercone, 2008).<br /><br />“Life is as much about determination as it is about motivation” (Pew, 2007, p. 22). Today’s instructors should approach teaching from “an informed, deliberate, strategic and tactical perspective (to) improve the educational setting for both educators and learners” (Pew, 2007, p. 22). Pew’s (2007) comment that “self-reliance is probably the most enduring source of motivation” (p. 23) efficiently describes that students able to rely upon themselves create their own elements of motivation. Deriving a sense of self-regulated power from internal sources is available to students or instructors in the form of internal motivation. The power merely needs plucking.<br /><br />Conclusion<br /><br />The remarks above address the motivational attributes relative to Knowles’ andragogical principles, and implications that the principles carry for online course design and delivery. Most significantly, online instruction must influence adult learners to evolve into self-directed learners able to infuse experiential influencers into new knowledge that is germane to their use-now applications. Gaining insight from adult online students who successfully demonstrate a higher level of evolvement as self-directed learners could provide instructors and instructional designers with invaluable information by using the learners’ perspectives.<br /><br />References:<br /><br />Cercone, K. (2008). Characteristics of adult learners with implications for online learning design. AACE Journal,16(2),137-159. Retrieved from <a href="http://training.gaincc.org/pluginfile.php/1014/mod_resource/content/0/adult_learners_online.pdf">http://training.gaincc.org/pluginfile.php/1014/mod_resource/content/0/adult_learners_online.pdf</a><br /><br />Clardy, A. (2006). Andragogy: Adult learning and education at its best? Retrieved from <a href="http://grad.towson.edu/program/master/hurd-hrdg-ms/files/Andragogy%20Adult%20Learning.doc">http://grad.towson.edu/program/master/hurd-hrdg-ms/files/Andragogy%20Adult%20Learning.doc</a>.<br /><br />EduTech Wiki. (2009). Self-directed learning. Retrieved from <a href="http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/en/Self-directed_learning">http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/en/Self-directed_learning</a><br /><br />Fischer, G. (n.d.). Learning opportunities provided by domain-oriented design environments. Retrieved from <a href="http://scholar.googleusercontent.com/scholar?q=cache:1jWoieMK2qYJ:scholar.google.com/&hl=en&as_sdt=0,33">http://scholar.googleusercontent.com/scholar?q=cache:1jWoieMK2qYJ:scholar.google.com/&hl=en&as_sdt=0,33</a><br /><br />Gibbons, H.S., & Wentworth, G.P. (2001). Andrological and pedagogical training differences for online instructors. Online Journal of Distance Learning Administration, (IV)III. Retrieved from <a href="http://www.westga.edu/~distance/ojdla/fall43/gibbons_wentworth43.html">http://www.westga.edu/~distance/ojdla/fall43/gibbons_wentworth43.html</a><br /><br />Houde, J. (2006). Andragogy and motivation: An examination of the principles of andragogy through two motivation theories. Retrieved from ERIC. (ED492652)<br /><br />Illinois Online Network. (2010). Instructional strategies for online courses. Retrieved from <a href="http://www.ion.uillinois.edu/resources/tutorials/pedagogy/instructionalstrategies.asp">http://www.ion.uillinois.edu/resources/tutorials/pedagogy/instructionalstrategies.asp</a><br /><br />Pew, S. (2007). Andragogy and pedagogy as foundational theory for student motivation in higher education. InSight: A Collection of Faculty Scholarship, (2), 14-25. Retrieved from <a href="http://www.insightjournal.net/Volume2/Andragogy%20and%20Pedagogy%20as%20Foundational%20Theory%20for%20Student%20Motivation%20in%20Higher%20Education.pdf">http://www.insightjournal.net/Volume2/Andragogy%20and%20Pedagogy%20as%20Foundational%20Theory%20for%20Student%20Motivation%20in%20Higher%20Education.pdf</a><br /><br />Thompson, M.A., & Deis, M. (2004). Andragogy for adult learners in higher education. Allied Academies International Conference, 9(1), 107-112. Retrieved from <a href="http://www.sbaer.uca.edu/research/allied/2004/financialStudies/pdf/33.pdf">http://www.sbaer.uca.edu/research/allied/2004/financialStudies/pdf/33.pdf</a>Deborah L. Popovicihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00026428885357985185noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5648944957694608174.post-39731924429237801852012-04-29T07:12:00.002-04:002012-04-29T07:13:40.014-04:00Strategies for Creating a Social Presence within an Online Adult Learning Environment<div class="DiscussionEntryHTML" id="_ctl4_DiscussionEntryText">
Joyce and Brown (2009) explained that "faculty who want to extend or
further develop relationships with their students may find it easier by
accessing the tools used by the students…using tools already familiar with
students may mean the difference between instruction and engagement” (par. 19).
Such relationship-building appears more successful when employing an increased
facility of synchronous communications, the design and inclusion of a forming
stage, greater emphasis on the proviso of guidelines for achieving good online
communication, and reducing the belief by learners of isolation. Joyce and Brown
(2009) further explained that learners fall into two groups: an outsider "who is
uncomfortable with the medium being used during the course and is not confident
in its use” (par. 26), and an insider who “is comfortable with the medium being
used during the course and is confident in its use” (par. 26). As the feeling of
community becomes stronger, the feeling of isolation gets weaker. The transition
from outsider to insider becomes easier when good communication guidelines are
provided to the learners; learner support is paramount in promoting effective
online learning (Joyce and Brown, 2009). <br />
<br />
Scaffolding “directs the
instructor's attention to the need for support in the learning process” (Joyce
and Brown, 2009, par. 29), and the media and technologies used for online
learning must be included in the support structure, which include learning
materials, library resources, and teachers. By systemizing the design of
scaffolds useable in many learning environments, a variety of learning concepts
such as "goal orientation, adaptability, accessibility, alignment, experiential
value, collaboration, constructivism, learning orientation, multiplicity, and
granularity" (Joyce and Brown, 2009, par. 31) can be selected, and designed to
coincide with the learning situation. The number of social software
communication tools are increasing rapidly: podcasts, games, blogs, weblogs,
wikis, social networking search engines, social network services, social guides,
social bookmarking, social libraries, and peer-to-peer social networks (Joyce
and Brown, 2009, par. 34). <br />
<br />
Joyce and Brown (2009) presented powerful new
strategies for the adult online learner in order to share information, and
support a shared community of learning. For example, (1) personal discussion
folders (or rooms/forums) are used to more fully discuss a specific topic, and
instructors are frequently required to post about 30% of the messages; (2)
immediacy, which refers to communications within 24 hours via verbal and
nonverbal behaviors that augment interpersonal relationships online; (3) live
chat that is less formal and more personal that many students favor; (4)
personalized e-mails from the instructor to not-so-active students help to
improve a learner's activity; (5) incorporating audio/video versus all
text-based content; (6) providing quick feedback and regular updates; (6) use of
group discussions; and (7) providing a student-only online communication area.
“Social networks (such as Facebook or Twitter) are a powerful foundation from
which to develop group identity and cohesion” (Joyce and Brown, 2009, par. 46).
<br />
<br />
Johnson (2007) supports "learner-learner interaction" (par. 4). However,
more recent research indicates that many learners place a high value on the
"independent and self-directed nature of online learning, and place less value
on learner-learner interactions such as collaborative group work" (par. 5). Due
to the paradoxical approaches toward communities of learners, and independent
learning, a more in depth understanding and implementation of communities of
learners is not necessarily the best approach (Johnson, 2007). "An increased
focus on collaboration to promote learner-learner interaction may support strong
learning outcomes, but may do so at the risk of detracting from some of the more
practical advantages offered by online education" (Johnson, 2007, par. 55).
<br />
<br />
Rochester Institute of Technology Online Learning (2012) provided
valuable insight about adult online learning strategies: <br />
<br />
Learners:
Adults have years of experience and a wealth of knowledge; Teaching Strategy:
Use your adult students as resources for yourself and for other students; use
open-ended questions to draw out students' knowledge and experiences; and
provide many opportunities for dialogue among students. <br />
<br />
Adults have
established values, beliefs, and opinions; Strategy: Take time to clarify
student expecatations of the course; permit debate and the challenge of ideas;
be careful to protect minority opinions within the class. <br />
<br />
Adults expect
to be treated as adults; Strategy: treat questions and comments with respect;
acknowledge contributions students make to the class; do not expect students to
necessarily agree with your plan for the course. <br />
<br />
Adults need to feel
self-directed; Strategy: engage students in designing the learning process;
expect students to want more than one medium for learning and to want control
over the learning pace and start/stop times. <br />
<br />
Adults often have a
problem-centered approach to learning; Strategy: show immediately how new
knowledge or skills can be applied to current problems or situations; use
participatory techniques such as case studies and problem-solving groups.
<br />
<br />
Adults tend to be less interested in survey types of courses and more
interested in straightforward how-to; Strategy: focus on theories and concepts
within the context of their applications to relevant problems; orient the course
content toward direct applications rather than toward theory. <br />
<br />
Adults
have increased variation in learning styles (individual differences among people
increase with age); Strategy: use a variety of teaching materials and methods to
take into account differences in style, time, types, and pace of learning.
<br />
<br />
Scollins-Mantha (2008) reported that as instructors encourage learners
by supporting personal issues, learners' sense of a social presence increases.
Some instructors use v-mail that includes a file with the instructor's voice
attached to an e-mail. As teaching and learning paradigms continue to evolve,
instructors may be more able to customize each adult learner's online experience
if instead of perceiving each learner merely as one individual among many that
there is also a growing empirical basis that requires instructors to acknowledge
that each individual student belongs to a learning community in one form or
another. Now may not be the time for instructors to depend on their past
teaching experiences but rather to listen to the learners if one really seeks to
teach a customized online learning experience. <br />
<br />
Examples from Online
Learning Experiences <br />
<br />
This section does not provide an example that
reflects an exposure to strategies used to build a social presence within an
online adult learning environment. However, this section does show that an
online instructional design, which was meant to represent a best practice, can
be ill aligned if not designed appropriately. (Pre-assessing students' language
skills, and better matching students within teams would be a strategy to build a
good/better social presence that would prevent the issues discussed next.) The
learning environment in my current and last programs (the PhD and master's)
primarily centered upon learning within an asynchronous, non-collaborative
online environment. In programs such as my bachelor's that required
collaborative learning, 99% percent of the time team efforts were negatively
affected by students unwilling to contribute their fair share. By having the
quality of individual assignments potentially impacted by the extra time
required of the group projects, the heavier group responsibilities took away
from the time available for the individual assignments. In particular, by being
burdened with aiding team members with proper academic writing, the resulting
fatigue and frustration negatively affected my learning: completing individual
assignments more quickly caused a decrease in my writing quality, and cognitive
development was short-changed. <br />
<br />
After the group experiences with the
bachelor's program, I selected programs not requiring collaboration. Even with
the potential of working collaboratively with a higher caliber of peers in my
second and third degree programs, and the possibility of having a higher quality
of learning experience, the negative results from my bachelor's teams seemed a
greater risk of being repeated in my later programs. Consequently, if I lost
what could have been an improved learning experience than what actually
occurred, I do not regret my decision of learning non-collaboratively. Also,
since my second and third programs were for degrees in distance education, my
learning during these two programs has assured me that any compensations I have
had to make have been worth the achieved level of learning.
<br />
<br />
Scollins-Mantha (2008) wrote that online instructors can provide
guidance for teams by assigning roles such as a "moderator, starter, or wrapper"
(par. ), which aids learning team members understand where to start, adds
comfort, and heightens social presence. Such guidance and other simple elements
of guidance were typically not provided to the teams I worked with so I assume
that if the university/instructor had rolled out more tools to develop social
presence that I may have experienced more team successes. I agree with
Scollins-Mantha (2008) who noted that "adding choice to the structure of a
group-learning situation could help to accommodate student’s preferences for
varying degrees of social presence, increase a student’s comfort and
satisfaction with the experience" (par. 45). <br />
<br />
References:
<br />
<br />
Johnson, E.S. (2007). Promoting learner-learner interactions through
ecological assessments of the online environment. MERLOT Journal of Online
Learning and Teaching, 3(2). Retrieved from
http://jolt.merlot.org/vol3no2/johnson.htm <br />
<br />
Joyce, K.M., & Brown, A.
(2009, Winter). Enhancing social presence in online learning: Mediation
strategies applied to social networking tools. Online Journal of Distance
Learning Administration, XII(IV). Retrieved from
http://www.westga.edu/~distance/ojdla/winter124/joyce124.html <br />
<br />
Rochester
Institute of Technology Online Learning. (2012). Adult learners. Retrieved from
<br />
http://online.rit.edu/faculty/teaching_strategies/adult_learners.cfm
<br />
<br />
Scollins-Mantha, B. (2008). Cultivating social presence in the online
learning classroom: <br />
A literature review with recommendations for practice.
Retrieved from http://itdl. org/Journal/Mar_08/article02.htm <br />
<br /></div>Deborah L. Popovicihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00026428885357985185noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5648944957694608174.post-38941650178965449142012-04-24T18:03:00.000-04:002012-04-24T18:05:13.097-04:00Selecting e-Tools for Effective Online Workshop Delivery for Teaching Adult Learners<span lang="EN" style="mso-ansi-language: EN;">Abstract<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<br />
<span lang="EN" style="mso-ansi-language: EN;">Although a non-practicing post-secondary teacher
must practice the development of online e-tools for teaching, an inherent
difficulty arises from the Web, which contains a bottomless availability of
such tools.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Assessing the most
appropriate and effective e-tools that support best practices, and the newest
teaching paradigms, as well as ensuring user-friendly software compatibility,
are the primary objectives of an online instructor.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>While the online university carries a
majority of the burden for assessing an online learner's software skills, the
online instructor must also be prepared and willing to aid the online learner
as well.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Identifying the best tools, and
providing the most relevant information to e-learners is paramount to meeting
those objectives, and achieving a successful learning environment.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<br />
Onli<span lang="EN" style="mso-ansi-language: EN;">ne Adult
Learning</span><br />
<br />
<span lang="EN" style="mso-ansi-language: EN;">Several
considerations impacted the choices made in the creation and delivery of a Workshop
for adult teachers who are interested in teaching online adult learners.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span>Georgiades (2009) explained that
instructors have a need to know what participants experience before facilitating
an online course, and the best way to gain this understanding is to first be a
participant.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Workshop provides the
registrants with both opportunities.<span lang="EN" style="mso-ansi-language: EN;"><o:p></o:p></span><br />
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN" style="mso-ansi-language: EN;"></span></b><br />
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN" style="mso-ansi-language: EN;">Considerations for Selecting
the Tool for Workshop Delivery </span></b><br />
<br />
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN" style="mso-ansi-language: EN;"></span></b><span lang="EN" style="mso-ansi-language: EN;">Deciding
upon the use of a Web site for delivering a Workshop for adult learners was
based upon previous experience with software created by Wix.com.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Furthermore, if the teacher learners
attending the Workshop are physically present, the online Workshop can also be
used in a traditional classroom with access to a Whiteboard and individual
computer stations.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Workshop can be
presented synchronously and asynchronously.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Planning an online Workshop<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>avails
the training to more attendees, and enables the attendees to have first-hand
(hands-on) training with online training tools.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The Web site software was chosen because it provides a very large choice
of professional looking templates, is free, has very good server reliability,
and provides the developer with an ability to insert links (including social
network links), graphics (clipart), audio and video clips, and is very
customizable.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Web site can also be
accessed by attendees after the ice-breaking activity, formal pre-recorded
presentation, modules, and exercises are completed.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span lang="EN" style="mso-ansi-language: EN;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></span><br />
<span lang="EN" style="mso-ansi-language: EN;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"></span>As
part of the Workshop pre-registration process, registrants supply information
necessary for an effective online Workshop.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>For example, the registrants' </span><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">"language fluency, accents, typing skill, and technical
expertise" (Horton, 2006, p. 420) as well as available computer equipment,
software, and connection speeds is provided.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The software requirements are also provided to registrants, and any
pre-loading necessary such as for the Adope Flash Player, is completed prior to
the Workshop.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Registrants are provided
with the Workshop Web site address (<a href="http://www.wix.com/dlfpoppins/teachonlinelearners%23!home%7CmainPage"><span style="color: blue;">http://www.wix.com/dlfpoppins/teachonlinelearners#!home|mainPage</span></a>),
and the Workshop program.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Workshop
design includes a beginning time<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>at
10:00 a.m. on April 30, 2012, for the ice-breaker.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Workshop also includes six modules of
differing lengths, six assignments generated from the modules, a post-course
survey, a contact form, and additional helpful links.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>During the synchronous ice-breaker, attendees
are informed to link up (after the ice-breaker concludes) with the Workshop Web
site to continue the Workshop by watching the introductory video, and to then
proceed to the modules. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><br />
<br />
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN" style="mso-ansi-language: EN;">Web Site Effectiveness</span></b><br />
<br />
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span lang="EN" style="mso-ansi-language: EN;"></span></b><span lang="EN" style="mso-ansi-language: EN;">Training
developers should ensure that training events help </span><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">learners apply relevant<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>skills and knowledge. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Workshop format is effective because it
contains e-tools including e-mail, a discussion forum using a Whiteboard, a
survey, audio and video conferencing, and take-away e-tools such as the
attendees' personal portfolios and links to e-tools.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><span style="color: black; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;">A good instructional design propagates the first phase toward designing
e-learning, and "contributes concepts, procedures, and techniques"
(Horton, 2006, p. 5) as do the other three phases ("software engineering,
media design, and economics" (p. 5). <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>These considerations were taken under
advisement, and the result is the online Workshop.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: black; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"></span></span><span style="color: black; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;">By
providing registrants with information beforehand of the technical skill,
software, and hardware requirements, and the fact that all registrants are
teachers, all participants should be able to learn from the Workshop.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The registrants are also provided a contact
person before and during the Workshop in case of issues.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Workshop delivers material useful for an
educator considering to teach online, and the e-tools presented have been shown
to enhance online learning.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span style="color: black; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"></span><br />
<span style="color: black; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;">A
review of the Workshop's materials and delivery environment would be conducted
before scheduling.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>"Rapid
prototyping involves learners and/or subject matter experts (SMEs) interacting
with prototypes and instructional designers in a continuous review/revision
cycle" (McLaren, 2008, p. 5).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The
survey responses after the Workshop are sent to the SurveyMonkey Web site at </span><a href="http://www.surveymonkey.com/"><span style="color: blue;">http://www.surveymonkey.com</span></a><span style="color: black; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;">, and can be reviewed and shared
with other workshop peers.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The
Ice-Breaking Activity, the synchronous e-tool, aids classroom teachers
transitioning to online instruction due to its similarity to face-to-face
activities.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The participants are also
exposed to self-directed learning activities because each module is completed
when the participant wishes to do so although the directions indicate all
modules, exercises, and survey should be completed by a certain date. </span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: black; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"></span><span style="color: black; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;">The
training materials supplied include videos on: Knowles' six learning theories,
today's adult learner, the Blackboard/Oracle software, creating a learning
management system, and delivering an engaging online class.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A 34 minute video is an introduction to the
Workshop by </span><span class="font6">Donna Ziegenfuss, University of Utah's
Center for Teaching and Learning Excellence.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>In the case of a "real" Workshop, the presenter would be the
Workshop administrator (in this case, me).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span><o:p></o:p></span><br />
<br />
<span class="font6">Conclusion </span><br />
<br />
<span class="font6"></span><span lang="EN" style="mso-ansi-language: EN;">The
considerations for selecting the most effective tool for the Workshop delivery logically
turned toward an e-learning venue.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>By
providing educators who are considering a transition to online teaching with a
hands-on experience such educators gain exposure to the skills and technology
used for online teaching.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Gaining such
experience prepares such educators with first-hand exposure to the issues
facing online students.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>An online
Workshop can also be presented in a hybrid method, which may aid educators who
have not taught online before with a higher comfort level as transitioning to online
teaching continues.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>E-learning now
occurs as soon as a child can reach the computer keyboard.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Challenging students who have such an early
experience with technologies that only now (or recently) instructors have been
learning remains a major challenge.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A
lack of research on identifying best practices for online teaching even while
learning paradigms are shifting every moment creates massive paradoxes.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>What is effective teaching and effective
learning retains an aura of mystery.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: black; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;">R</span></span><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><o:p>eferences:</o:p></span><br />
<br />
Georgiades, J. (2009). Best practices for
teaching and presenting live virtual classes and meeting.Retrieved from
http://www.parsecinfo.nl/support/whitepapers/best-practice.htm<span style="color: black; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: black; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;">Horton, W. (2006). E-Learning by
Design. John Wiley & Sons: San Francisco, CA: John Wiley <span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>& Sons.<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<br />
<span style="color: black; mso-font-kerning: 12.0pt;">McLaren, A.C. (2008). Designing
effective e-learning: Guidelines for practitioners. <i>Distance <span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Learning</i>, (5)2, p. 47. Retrieved from
ProQuest.<o:p></o:p></span>Deborah L. Popovicihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00026428885357985185noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5648944957694608174.post-57991921536665437562012-04-19T10:08:00.001-04:002012-04-21T19:58:43.288-04:00The Change Learning Theory and Impact for Online LearningDirkx,
Gilley, & Gilley (2004) wrote that "learning and change are
conceptualized largely as cognitive, decontextualized, individualized, and
solitary practices" (p. 36).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Learning online typically requires a collaborative effort between
instructor and learner, and learner to learner.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>As learners increasingly face changes in the knowledge and expertise
required in work (to deliver products and services) and school (to deliver
assignments), learning and change must become less individualized and solitary
as people depend upon each other to ensure the required deliverables. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Learning online requires a change toward
collaboration and learning communities in order to gain and sustain new
knowledge, and the individual becomes part of the new identity (Dirkx et al.,
2004).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Ultimately, without every person
"improving his or her respective skills, competencies, knowledge, and
attitudes" (Dirkx et al., 2004, p. 41), change and performance improvement
cannot happen.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br />
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none;">
In
order to gain cooperation during the development of online collaborative teams
and learning communities, instructors need to incrementally address change with
students by reinforcing and supporting learning activities (Dirkx et al.,
2004).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Incremental integration of
desired changes improves learners' acceptance of change.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Accepting change is critical to completely
integrating new knowledge/information.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none;">
"Refreezing"
(Dirkx et al., 2004, p. 43) learners' new behaviors brought about by the
desired changes then invokes a new culture that can support such learning
processes as seen in collaborative learning teams.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Such teams fall short of embracing change
because of the "lack of instructor or management support for change;
internal conflict for resources; recognition and rewards, organizational overconfidence,
lack of critical reflection skills, and the lack of commitment to change"
(Dirkx et al., 2004, p. 45). </div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none;">
<span lang="EN" style="mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">AIPPG.com (2011) also reported on Lewin's Change Theory: </span>"one’s
behavior is related both to one’s personal characteristics and to the social
situation in which one finds oneself" (par. 1).<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Lewin's concepts included: </span><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">(1)
d</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">riving forces, which </span><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">push
in a direction that causes change to occur, facilitate change because they push the person in the
desired direction, and cause a shift in the equilibrium <span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>towards change, (2) r<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">estraining
forces, which </span>counter driving forces, hinder change because they push the person in the
opposite direction, and cause a shift in the equilibrium
which opposes change, and (3) an e<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">quilibrium,
which </span>is a state of being where
driving forces equal restraining forces and no change occurs, and can be raised
or lowered by changes that occur
between the driving and restraining forces.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>(par. 2)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none;">
<span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">AIPPG.com (2004) Lewin's
change theory includes three stages: </span><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">the first stage is u<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">nfreezing, which is </span>the process which involves finding a method of
making it possible for people to
let go of an old pattern that was counterproductive in some way, is necessary to overcome the strains of Individual
resistance and group conformity,
and can be achieved by the use of three methods
(increase the driving forces that
direct behavior away from the existing situation or status quo, decrease the<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>restraining forces that negatively affect the
movement from the existing equilibrium, and finding
a combination of the two methods listed above).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The second stage is <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">moving to a new level or changing…</span>involving a
process of change in thoughts, feeling, behavior, or<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>all three, that is in some way more liberating or more
productive.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The third stage is r<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">efreezing,
which </span>establishes the change as a new habit, so that it now becomes the 'standard operating procedure'; without this
stage of refreezing, it is easy to go back to the old ways. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(par. 2)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none;">
<span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Successfully applying Lewin's
change theory requires analyzing the driving and restraining forces before a
planned change is implemented.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The implication
of Lewin's Change Theory for teaching adults online could include a school's
preadmission department assessing an online student's technical and writing
skills.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Online learners must have the
prerequisite skills required for working within a school's online platform.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>New learners successfully meeting the skills
criteria can begin an online class, and incrementally be given assignments to
increase the number of technical and writing skills required for the current
and future classes.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>By carefully
monitoring issues new online students are having, and giving them additional
tools if needed, the restraining forces decrease, and the SOP becomes the norm.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none;">
<span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">K</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">ritsonis (2004) presents additional change
theories: <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Lippitt’s Phases of Change Theory,
which posits that "</span><span style="font-family: "Times-Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: Times-Roman;">changes are more likely to be stable if they
spread to neighboring systems or to sub-parts of the system immediately
affected, and changes are better rooted" (p. 1). <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For example, online students frequently have
to join in an online class forum.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Being
given an assignment that provides students with an opportunity to discuss
problems occurring with web searches, all students can learn from each other
and the instructor about how to solve those problems.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The new skills learned in how to solve those
problems then become the normal and accepted manner.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Prochaska and DiClemente’s Change Theory
posits that "</span><span style="font-family: "Times-Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: Times-Roman;">people pass through a series of stages when
change occurs, and the stages discussed in their change theory are: precontemplation,
contemplation, preparation, action, and maintenance" (Kritsonis, 2004, p.
2). Because progressing through these phases is cyclical, not linear, learners
relapse during their efforts to change, and must cycle through the process
sometimes repeatedly (Kritsonis, 2004). <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Online students who are assigned work teams
all have different skillsets for working collaboratively.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A team leader typically emerges, and others
begin to follow new processes required of the team as assignments are designed
and submitted.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A good team (as monitored
by the instructor) assists each other through trouble spots such as with
writing, researching, or technical issues.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Some members will achieve completing assignments due to the new
advice/processes, and others will not.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Those who do not can be assisted further, patiently, and be given
different advice or tools to work through until success is achieved.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">The Social Cognitive Theory presents that "i</span><span style="font-family: "Times-Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: Times-Roman;">ndividuals
can learn by direct experiences, human dialogue and interaction, and
observation. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This theory proposes that behavior
change is affected by environmental influences, personal factors, and
attributes of the behavior itself" (Kritsonis, 2004, p. 4).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Since learners must exhibit a degree of self-efficacy,
be confident in their ability to exhibit the required behavior, and know there
is an applicable incentive to perform, such theory can be used by an instructor
when an online team must use an online social software program to complete an
assignment.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Such a program could be a
wiki or blog.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As the team works on
developing and using such a program to complete an assignment, all team members
observe, interact, and discuss within the program how the project is
progressing. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">The Theory of Reasoned Action and Planned Behavior,
which posits that a learner's p</span><span style="font-family: "Times-Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: Times-Roman;">erformance of an assigned behavior is ruled
by the learner's positive intention to carry out the behavior</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times-Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: Times-Roman;">(Kritsonis, 2004). <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This theory also includes the influence from
the learner's social environment. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times-Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: Times-Roman;">The
change theories often make rational sense but can side-track learning progress
if learners' </span><span style="font-family: "Times-Roman","serif"; mso-bidi-font-family: Times-Roman;">feelings,
attitudes, past input, and experiences are not considered (Kritsonis, 2004).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Disregarding such elements causes resistance.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Instructors and learners must continue to
strive together as technology and cultural issues emerge if change is to be
recognized as a much needed part of online learning.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none;">
<span lang="EN" style="mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">References:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<span lang="EN" style="mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">AIPPG.com (2011). <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Change
theory: Kurt Lewin</i>. Retrieved from <a href="http://currentnursing.com/nursing_theory/change_theory.html">http://currentnursing.com/</a></span><a href="http://currentnursing.com/nursing_theory/change_theory.html"><span lang="EN" style="mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">nursing_theory/change_theory.html</span></a><br />
<br />
Dirkx,
J., Gilley, J., & Gilley, M.A. (2004). Change theory in CPE and HRD: <br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none;">
Toward
a holistic view of learning and change in work. <i>Advances in Developing Human
Resources</i>, <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">6</span>(1), 35-51.
Retrieved from ProQuest Education Journals.<span lang="EN" style="display: none; mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hide: all;">Press the
Escape key to close </span><span lang="EN" style="mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
Kritsonis, A. (2004-2005). Comparison of change
theories. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">International Journal Of
Scholarly Academic Intellectual Diversity</i>, 8(1), 1-7. Retrieved from http://www.nationalforum.com/<br />
Electronic%20Journal%20Volumes/Kritsonis%2C%20Alicia%20Comparison%20of%20Change%20Theories.pdf<br />
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<br /></div>Deborah L. Popovicihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00026428885357985185noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5648944957694608174.post-5655493687811724492012-04-13T06:37:00.004-04:002012-04-13T06:37:43.711-04:00Critiquing Literature (Research) Articles for a Dissertation<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Boote and
Beile (2005) wrote that pre-dissertation students need to learn the skills
required for analyzing and synthesizing research in order to successfully
assess, synthesize, and improve research.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Such skills also enable students to select a dynamic dissertation topic,
and apply the most appropriate methods for collecting and analyzing data.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Boote and Beile (2005) explained that having
the abilities to "build on the scholarship and research of those who have
come before us" (p. 3) is known as generativity, which gives meaning,
integrity, and sophistication to research efforts.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Boote
and Beile (2005) provided guidelines for a literature review, which includes
providing an overview of the study, demarcation of what the study is and is
not, and rationalizes the stated decisions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Boote and Beile (2005) wrote that a literature review should extend
beyond Creswell's guidelines, and "serve a critical role in gatekeeping,
policing, and leading to new productive work, rather than merely mirroring research in
a field" (p. 7).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br />
<br />
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"></span>A literature review
should contain "standards such as consistency, parsimony, elegance, and
fruitfulness" (Boote and Beile, 2005, p. 7). <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Eight elements for a successful literature
review include "topicality, comprehensiveness, breadth, exclusion, relevance,
currency, availability, and authority" (Boote and Beile, 2005, p. 7).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Boote and Beile (2005) also developed a
literature review rubric that assesses "coverage, synthesis, methodology, significance,
and rhetoric" (p. 8).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Assembling
the following toolbox for evaluating research provides a set of questions based
upon prior academic experiences, and from leaders in the field.<br />
<br />
Lauer (2004) wrote that policymakers read education research, and attempt to make a
decision about whether to trust the results and conclusions, <span style="background-color: white;">policymakers</span> then
need to question if the research should be used to influence education policy,
and how to implement changes. Because state and/or local factors, including the
cost of implementation, influence policy decisions, researchers must be held accountable
for the "quality, coherence, applicability and educational significance of
the research" reported.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Conducting
an appropriate literature review creates the infrastructure to accountability. <br />
<br />
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Part I: Toolbox for Evaluating Research Articles<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: 27.0pt;">
<span style="color: green;"><span style="font-family: Arial;"><span class="Header323levelsAPACarattere"><span style="color: #444444; font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif;">Certain components as noted by Lauer
(2004) that represent high quality research espouse a </span></span></span></span><span style="font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span class="Header323levelsAPACarattere">few characteristics
such as validity, connection to prior research, ethical standards, and peer </span></span></span><span style="font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span class="Header323levelsAPACarattere">review.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The skills required for pre-dissertation
students when evaluating prior research permit </span></span></span><span style="font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span class="Header323levelsAPACarattere">students (and policymakers) to appraise the trustworthiness
of the research being reviewed.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></span></span><span style="font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif;"><span style="color: #444444;"><span class="Header323levelsAPACarattere">Using the Applied Quick Primer (</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Exhibit
A), and answering the following questions aid in </span></span></span><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">achieving
a good appraisal of a research article:</span><span class="Header323levelsAPACarattere"><span style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: 27.0pt;">
<span class="Header323levelsAPACarattere"><span style="color: black; font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif;">1.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Does the r</span></span><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="color: black; font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif;">esearch</span> design match the research questions?</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: 27.0pt;">
<span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Have acceptable technical standards been
adopted during data collection and analyses?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: 27.0pt;">
<span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">3.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Does the current study cumulatively add to
the current knowledge base?</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: 27.0pt;">
<span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">4.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Does the current study's construction
arise from prior research studies and conclusions?</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: 27.0pt;">
<span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">5.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Does the current study impart accepted
rules for ethical research thus avoiding </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: 27.0pt;">
<span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> researcher </span><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">bias?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: 27.0pt;">
<a href="" name="anchor1"></a><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">6.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Have the
articles under review been peer-reviewed?</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; tab-stops: 27.0pt;">
<a href="" name="anchor10"></a><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">7.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Are the researcher's findings coherent,
e.g., based upon a theory or conceptual framework?</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; tab-stops: 27.0pt;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">8.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Have
the researcher's findings been replicated, and representative of a body of
research? </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; tab-stops: 27.0pt;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">9.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Does
the research study have external validity such that </span><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">the findings of the study
apply to </span><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">the situation
of interest<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(Situation of interest includes the setting,
participants, program or </span></span><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">treatment.)
</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; tab-stops: 27.0pt;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">10.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>I</span><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">f
a policy or practice is changed or adopted based on the research results, what
difference, </span><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">if any, will
it make to education?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(A research
study's educational significance is indicated </span><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">by the effect
size of a program or practice.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Additionally, a meta-analysis reflects the </span><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">average effect
size of several studies, and is a more informative tool to determine </span><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">educational
significance.) </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; tab-stops: 27.0pt;">
<span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">11.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Do the
researcher's conclusions infer potentially harmful effects?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; tab-stops: 27.0pt;">
<span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p> </o:p></span><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The </span>Board of Regents of the University of Wisconsin
System (2011) provided useful </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; tab-stops: 27.0pt;">
guidelines for reviewing literature:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; tab-stops: 27.0pt;">
<span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">12.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Does the Problem
Statement address w</span>hose problem it is? </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; tab-stops: 27.0pt;">
13.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>What
are the potential negative consequences if the study is never conducted?</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; tab-stops: 27.0pt;">
<span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">14.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Is there clarity
in the </span>Purpose Statement?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; tab-stops: 27.0pt;">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"></span>15.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Does
the purpose statement flow directly from the problem statement?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; tab-stops: 27.0pt;">
16.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Do
the research questions address the study's purpose and problem?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; tab-stops: 27.0pt;">
17.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Is
the research method identified?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; tab-stops: 27.0pt;">
18.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Does
the research design (e.g., case study, phenomenology, grounded theory, causal-</div>
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>comparative,
correlational, quasi-experimental, etc.) answer the research questions?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; tab-stops: 27.0pt;">
19.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Are
the variables/constructs and/or phenomenon/concept/idea identified?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; tab-stops: 27.0pt;">
20.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Is
the study's specific population identified, including an estimate of the number
of participants who will serve as the sample, based upon a power analysis (quantitative/mixed <span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>method)
or on design conventions (qualitative)?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; tab-stops: 27.0pt;">
21.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Is
the geographic location of the study identified?</div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Northcentral University (2012)
encapsulates the required elements for a dissertation's<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>literature review: </div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; tab-stops: 27.0pt;">
22.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Is the literature review an orderly,
cohesive, and well-sequenced narrative that relates the problem under investigation to a body of scholarly work?</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; tab-stops: 27.0pt;">
23.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Does the literature review involve a critical
appraisal and synthesis of the relevant<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> p</span>ublished research, including critical appraisals of the research design and methods of
key studies?</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; tab-stops: 27.0pt;">
24.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Does
the literature review provide a chronological viewpoint about the research
topic with the
majority of the literature reviewed sourced from scholarly, peer-reviewed work available
in the previous five years? </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; tab-stops: 27.0pt;">
25.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Does
the literature review provide a plentiful number of references to enable
impartiality to the
study's topic, and provide readers with a wide-range of information about the importance
and background of the project?</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 2; tab-stops: 27.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 2; tab-stops: 27.0pt;">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Trochim (2006) wrote that reviewing literature
requires an inquiry regarding validity.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 2; tab-stops: 27.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 2; tab-stops: 27.0pt;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">26. <span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Has the literature provided measurements that
infer valid conclusions or samples that </span><span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">enable valid inferences?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>If so, how is validity stated? <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: 27.0pt;">
<span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Mesher (n.d.) wrote that "if an
argument is found to be <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">invalid</span>,
all judgment must be </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: 27.0pt;">
<span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">suspended
because, to be acceptable, an argument <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">must</span>
be valid" (par. 1): <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: 27.0pt;">
<span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">27.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Does the researcher's argument represent a
valid (acceptable) form?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>If so, how is
it </span><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: 27.0pt;">
<span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">supported?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(Evaluate the content of its premises to
assess truthfulness—</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: 27.0pt;">
<span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">verified/justified—or falsehood.)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: 27.0pt;">
<span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">28.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Does the researcher's argument represent an
invalid (unacceptable) form?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>If so, how? </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: 27.0pt;">
<span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">29.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Are the claims verified or justified because
they follow these three rules?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Explain. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: 27.0pt;">
<span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">--the
claims do not conflict with what one knows or understands as true;</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: 27.0pt;">
<span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> </span><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">--the
claims do not impose a belief or acceptance of unsupported claims conflicting </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: 27.0pt;">
<span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> with w</span><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">hat </span><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">one knows or understands as true;</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt 27pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">--the
claims support an appropriate element of proof.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; tab-stops: 27.0pt;">
<span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">30.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></span>What do I want to learn from reading
this article?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 1; tab-stops: 27.0pt;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Little
and Parker (2010) provided a host of questions useful for an article review:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 1; tab-stops: 27.0pt;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">31.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Is the type of research descriptive (what is there or what do we
see), comparative (are </span><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">findings
general or comparable to other elements), or analytical (how does it work or
what </span><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">is
the mechanism)?</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; tab-stops: 27.0pt;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">32.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>What are
the key points of the article? <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Example.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; tab-stops: 27.0pt;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"></span></span><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">33.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Is there
proof such as data supporting the article's conclusions?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Example.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; tab-stops: 27.0pt;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">34.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Is there
a superior degree of evidence, and any limitations noted in the research methodology?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">35.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>What is
important about the researcher's conclusions?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span></span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; tab-stops: 27.0pt;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">36.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></span>Does the research follow the steps of
the research process in a logical manner? <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; tab-stops: 27.0pt;">
37.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Were the
participants fully informed about the nature of the research? <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; tab-stops: 27.0pt;">
38.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Was the
autonomy/confidentiality of the participants guaranteed? </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; tab-stops: 27.0pt;">
39.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Were the participants
protected from harm? </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; tab-stops: 27.0pt;">
40.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Was ethical permission
granted for the study?<span style="font-size: 9pt;"><o:p> </o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; tab-stops: 27.0pt;">
41.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Was the data
gathering instrument described? <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Was the instrument
appropriate? <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>How was it developed? Were reliability and validity testing
undertaken and the results discussed? Was a pilot study undertaken?</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; tab-stops: 27.0pt;">
42.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>If a hypothesis
was identified, was it supported?<o:p> </o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; tab-stops: 27.0pt;">
43. <span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Was a recommendation
for further research made?</div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; tab-stops: 27.0pt;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Guidelines from Coughian, Cronin, &
Ryan (2008, p. 739) provided an additional idea for </span><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">critiquing
research relative to the qualitative research manner:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; tab-stops: 27.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; tab-stops: 27.0pt;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">44.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></span>Were credibility, dependability,
transferability and goodness discussed?<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><o:p> </o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; tab-stops: 27.0pt;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The Methodist Hospital Employee
Intranet</span> (2012) presented guidelines for critiquing a literature review for a mixed-methods research project
although most guidelines have already been touched upon:<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; tab-stops: 27.0pt;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">45.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></span><span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">Is there an integrated summary of the current knowledge base regarding
the research </span><span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">problem, or does the literature review
contain opinion or anecdotal articles without any </span><span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">synthesis or summary of the whole? </span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; tab-stops: 27.0pt;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;"></span><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p>
<span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">References:<o:p></o:p></span></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; tab-stops: 27.0pt;">
<span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p> </o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; tab-stops: 27.0pt;">
Board of Regents of the
University of Wisconsin System. (2011). <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The
writer's handbook: Learn </i><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">how to write a
review of literature</i>. Retrieved from <a href="http://writing.wisc.edu/Handbook/ReviewofLiterature.html">http://writing.wisc.edu/Handbook/ReviewofLiterature.html</a></div>
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<span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; tab-stops: 139.5pt;">
<span style="display: none; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hide: all;">false</span><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">Boote,
D.N.</span><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> &
Beile, P. (2005, August/September). S<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">cholars before researchers: On the </span></span><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">centrality of the dissertation literature review in research preparation. </span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Educational Researcher, 34</span></i><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">(6), 3-15. Retrieved from ProQuest.</span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; mso-outline-level: 2; tab-stops: 49.5pt;">
<br /></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; text-align: center;">
<span style="display: none; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-hide: all;"><v:shapetype coordsize="21600,21600" filled="f" id="_x0000_t75" o:preferrelative="t" o:spt="75" path="m@4@5l@4@11@9@11@9@5xe" stroked="f">
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Coughian, M., Cronin, P., & Ryan, F.
(2008). <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Step-by-step guide to critiquing
research. Part 1: </i></span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;">q</span>uantitative
research</span></i><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">. Retrieved from </span><a href="http://lancashirecare.files.wordpress.com/2008/03/step-by-step-guide-to-criti-research-part-1-quantitative-reseawrch.pdf">http://lancashirecare.files.wordpress.com/2008/03/step-by-step-guide-to-criti-research-part-1-quantitative-reseawrch.pdf</a></div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Coughian, M., Cronin, P., & Ryan, F.
(2008). <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Step-by-step guide to critiquing
research. Part 2: </i></span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">qualitative
research</span></i><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">. Retrieved from </span><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><a href="http://lancashirecare.files.wordpress.com/2008/03/2007-step-by-step-guide-to-critiquing-research-part-2-qualitative-research.pdf">http://lancashirecare.files.wordpress.com/</a></span><a href="http://lancashirecare.files.wordpress.com/2008/03/2007-step-by-step-guide-to-critiquing-research-part-2-qualitative-research.pdf"><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">2008/03/2007-step-by-step-guide-to-critiquing-research-part-2-qualitative-</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">research.pdf</span></a></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif;"><span style="color: black;"><span class="Header323levelsAPACarattere">Lauer, P.A. (2004). How
do I know if the research warrants policy changes? Retrieved from </span></span></span><span style="font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif;"><span style="color: black;"><span class="Header323levelsAPACarattere"><a href="http://www.ecs.org/html/educationIssues/Research/primer/researchwarrants.asp">http://www.ecs.org/html/educationIssues/Research/primer/researchwarrants.asp</a></span></span></span><span class="Header323levelsAPACarattere"><span style="font-style: normal; font-weight: normal; mso-bidi-font-style: italic; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><o:p><span style="color: black; font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif;"> </span></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif;"><span style="color: black;"><span class="Header323levelsAPACarattere">Lauer, P.A. (2004). Research utility
assessment guide. Retrieved from h<a href="http://www.ecs.org/html/educationIssues/Research/primer/rubric.pdf">ttp://www.ecs.org/</a></span><a href="http://www.ecs.org/html/educationIssues/Research/primer/rubric.pdf"></a></span><a href="http://www.ecs.org/html/educationIssues/Research/primer/rubric.pdf"></a></span><a href="http://www.ecs.org/html/educationIssues/Research/primer/rubric.pdf"><span style="font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif;"><span style="color: black;"><span class="Header323levelsAPACarattere">html/educationIssues/Research/primer/rubric.pdf</span></span></span></a><span style="font-family: Times, "Times New Roman", serif;"><span style="color: black;"></span></span></div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Little, J.W., & Parker, R.
(2010). <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="mso-font-kerning: 18.0pt;">How to read a scientific paper</span></i><span style="mso-font-kerning: 18.0pt;">. </span>Retrieved from </span><a href="http://www.biochem.arizona.edu/classes/bioc568/papers.htm#reading">http://www.biochem.arizona.edu/classes/bioc568/papers.htm#reading</a></div>
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D. (n.d.). <i>Mission critical: San Jose University critical thinking web page.
</i><span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">Retrieved </span><span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">from <a href="http://www./"></a></span><a href="http://www./"></a><a href="http://www.sjsu.edu/depts/itl/graphics/main.html">http://www.</a>sjsu.edu/depts/itl/graphics/main.html
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<br /></div>Deborah L. Popovicihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00026428885357985185noreply@blogger.com17tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5648944957694608174.post-76774558545234915532012-04-10T09:31:00.000-04:002012-04-10T09:31:06.416-04:00Thank you, Father God, for Resurrection Day!See my other blog...<a href="http://payingjesusgifttforward.wordpress.com/">http://payingjesusgifttforward.wordpress.com/</a><br />
<br />
Thank you so much, Father God, for the giving of Your Son for our sins, and for raising Him to Life three days later! I wait for His final coming soon. From BibleInfo.com:<br />
<br />
The Scripture affirms that Jesus Christ was resurrected from the dead. <em>It’s in the Bible</em>, Matthew 28:5-6, NKJV. “But the angel answered and said to the women, “Do not be afraid, for I know that you seek Jesus who was crucified. He is not here; for He is risen, as He said. Come, see the place where the Lord lay.’”<br />
<br />
The resurrection happened exactly as the prophets said it would. <em>It’s in the Bible</em>, I Corinthians 15:3-4, TLB. “I passed on to you right from the first what had been told to me, that Christ died for our sins just as the Scriptures said He would, and that He was buried, and that three days afterwards He arose from the grave just as the prophets foretold.”<br />
<br />
The resurrection of Jesus is the central truth of the Christian faith. <em>It’s in the Bible</em>, I Corinthians 15:14-17, NIV. “And if Christ has not been raised, our preaching is useless and so is your faith. More than that, we are then found to be false witnesses about God, for we have testified about God that He raised Christ from the dead… . And if Christ has not been raised, your faith is futile; you are still in your sins.”<br />
<br />
What does the Bible teach about our resurrection from death? Our resurrection is certain because of Christ’s resurrection. <em>It’s in the Bible</em>, I Corinthians 15:12-14, NIV. “But if it is preached that Christ has been raised from the dead, how can some of you say that there is no resurrection of the dead? If there is no resurrection of the dead, then not even Christ has been raised. And if Christ has not been raised, our preaching is useless and so is your faith.”<br />
<br />
Our resurrected bodies will be different than our present ones and they will be eternal. <em>It’s in the Bible</em>, I Corinthians 15:51-53, TLB. “But I am telling you this strange and wonderful secret: we shall not all die, but we shall all be given new bodies! It will all happen in a moment, in the twinkling of an eye, when the last trumpet is blown. For there will be a trumpet blast from the sky, and all the Christians who have died will suddenly become alive, with new bodies that will never, never die; and then we who are still alive shall suddenly have new bodies too. For our earthly bodies, the ones we have now that can die, must be transformed into heavenly bodies that cannot perish but will live forever.”<br />
<br />
Because of Christ resurrection, He has the power to resurrect dead relationships and those who are spiritually dead. <em>It’s in the Bible</em>, Philippians 3:10 NIV. “I want to know Christ and the power of His resurrection and the fellowship of sharing in His sufferings, becoming like Him in His death.” Ephesians 2:1,4,5, NIV says, “As for you, you were dead in your transgressions and sins But because of His great love for us, God, who is rich in mercy, made us alive with Christ even when we were dead in transgressions—it is by grace you have been saved.”<br />
<br />
We can be sure of victory in all things, because of Christ’s victory over sin and death in His resurrection. It’s in the Bible, 1 Corinthians 15:55-58, NKJV. “ O Death, where is your sting? O Hades, where is your victory?” The sting of death is sin, and the strength of sin is the law. But thanks be to God, who gives us the victory through our Lord Jesus Christ. Therefore, my beloved brethren, be steadfast, immovable, always abounding in the work of the Lord, knowing that your labor is not in vain in the Lord”.<br />
<a href="http://www.bibleinfo.com/en/topics/resurrection">http://www.bibleinfo.com/en/topics/resurrection</a>Deborah L. Popovicihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00026428885357985185noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5648944957694608174.post-58312472475273199532012-04-05T08:14:00.001-04:002012-04-05T08:34:44.174-04:00Pros and Cons of Using Second Life as a Learning Technology<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> I decided I wanted to experience
the Second World as an avatar ("Juleeah Lavender") in order </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">to </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">explore some educational areas, and other parts of the vast Second Life
frontier. I decided to use </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">the </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">avatar so I could experience what a student
would experience. I needed to do this in order to </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">judge </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">anything about Second
Life. I was not impressed when the system crashed, or when the a</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">vatar's </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">shoes
were not functioning correctly. I especially was not impressed when I was in a
public </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">zone, and two female avatars ran around me seemingly after each other,
and were using very large </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">pistols in the process. On a positive note, when I
was near other Avatars, one or two sent me an IM </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">to let me know they were there
to help; these "helpers" were from the company tech teams. </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">After two
or three hours, I could actually walk almost straight, and fly without hitting
too many </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">buildings. That was a little exhilerating, and actually created a
sensation of flying. I could not get </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">some other features to work, which were
placed by other participants such as a "touch me" screen to </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">start a
hologram feature. Another person had placed some features to buy a "how to
make or print" </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">parts of a book. I "teleported" to several
educational sites, which had tech tools for teaching. After a </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">few hours, I did
become quite tired of trying to learn about how to use the system. </span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> During
the Second World experience, although I was not partaking of a lesson or in a
learning </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">situation, I kept thinking that students would have to undergo the
same orientation that I did. I kept </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">working in the system because in trying to
evaluate the Second World, I did not want to give up too </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">soon because I could
be losing a valuable tool for my students. I did not want that to be the case
</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">unless I worked hard at learning the program. With just trying to evaluate the
Second World in 2-3 </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">days, I am not convinced yet that it is either valuable nor
invaluable. My goal is to teach online </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">undergraduate students, not younger
students (who have already used Second World for a long time). </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">My goal is not
to impose massive frustration upon my students (not to say that our instructor
did this </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">to us…we are merely learning about new technological tools). </span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">My
opinion is that instead of having my students spend time designing an Avatar's
many </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">features, learning to move it, transport, buy clothes, get freebies, and
so forth, so they could a</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">fterward participate in a lesson from me or someone
else, I would be better off in using this tool for </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">educating myself as a
teacher, which the system provides in some ways. I would also be very </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">skeptical
of using Second World for a universally designed learning scenario for any age
student: </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">even if a physically challenged person in the real world could walk in
Second Life, there are many </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">emotional, physical, and cultural challenges which
may be erased temporarily, but re-emerge after </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">logging off Second Life. Are our
children mature enough to adapt to this depth of change? </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">I
conducted some research and found some pros and cons of Second Life written by
Valerie in 2008, </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">which was posted at the Educational Development Centre Blog.</span><br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> Cons include a long learning curve,
difficulty in managing student behavior and interruptions </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">from the real world,
the fact that a monetary cost frequently emerges, c</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">ommunications have not </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">been perfected, increased
difficulty in ensuring students take their school work seriously, impaired
</span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">ability for students to reconnect to their real world, and public areas are
"uncouth" or "raunchy" – it </span><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">is not just a space for
education, but one in which both bad and good exist.</span><br />
<span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> Pros include </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">amazing
and successful possibilities </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">for learning through development of virtual </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">activities, world
of physical limitations – enabling a diverse and creative set of activities, gr<span style="color: black;">eater </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="color: black;">connectivity and engagement in distance education
classes, a tool used for entertainment becomes </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="color: black;">also one of education – meeting
students where they are and making learning engaging and </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="color: black;">enjoyable for them, ability
to have access to a virtual classroom in cases when physical teaching is </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="color: black;">not
possible, highly adaptable, user created, and users retain intellectual property
to their creations, </span></span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="color: black;">utilizes experiential learning and caters to different
learning methods.</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"> Mmmmmm….more
pros than cons. This must mean there are more positives than negatives! </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">What
weight do we assign each pro and con, and who devises those weights? For
example, one pro i</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">s not equal to one con; in fact, one pro may carry five times
the importance than the one con. </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">I
reviewed about 20-25 Second Life videos, and almost all were entitled
"Educational". My opinion </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">is that this technology could add some
value as a supplement to the curriculum, but only as a </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">supplement. My vote is
still out on whether I would accept and implement Second Life material into </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">any
age curriculum. My instincts after seeing and experiencing first-hand the
virtual environment of </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Second Life are to suspend using it until I can
investigate it much further, and see empirical data </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">supporting it.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
Reference:<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;"><o:p> </o:p></span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">Educational
Development Centre Blog (2008, February 5). Second life in higher education:
Surveying pros and cons. Retrieved May 13, 2010, from http://edc.carleton.ca/blog/index.php/<o:p></o:p></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12pt;">2008/02/05/second-life-in-higher-education-surveying-pros-and-cons/<o:p></o:p></span>Deborah L. Popovicihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00026428885357985185noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5648944957694608174.post-64651584770858293172012-04-05T08:09:00.000-04:002012-04-05T08:09:00.344-04:00Suggestions for Good Academic Writing<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="font-family: "Courier New", Courier, monospace;">As a doctoral learner,
discovering professors' expectations for submitted assignments can only be
achieved by a thorough knowledge of the university's and professors' writing
rudiments.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Doctoral learners' pre-assessment
of these rudiments requires an in-depth review of peer-reviewed articles, using
references such as the American Psychological Association's (APA) Manual, and
other reliable resources.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In addition,
gaining and applying such knowledge when writing affords doctoral learners
opportunities for introspection as well as intellectual and academic growth as
degree requirements are further achieved.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Courier New", Courier, monospace;">
</span><br />
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0.95pt 2.15pt 2.9pt; mso-add-space: auto; text-align: justify;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="font-family: "Courier New", Courier, monospace;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>This
paper presents an analysis of (1) how academic professionals gain insight into
good academic writing, (2) common mistakes by academic writers, (3) criticisms
against poor academic writing, and (4) solutions for avoiding poor academic
writing.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Analyzing and critiquing
sources, which elaborate upon good writing mechanics as provided by the APA and
other reliable references, creates a standardized across-the-board utility when
academic writing is required and produced for evaluation.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Knowledge of common writing mistakes, and how
to avoid such mistakes provides writers with the basic and advanced skills
required for today's doctoral learners' writing activities.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0.95pt 2.15pt 2.9pt; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New", Courier, monospace;">Academic Professionals' Identification of Good
Academic Writing</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0.95pt 2.15pt 2.9pt; mso-add-space: auto; tab-stops: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Courier New", Courier, monospace;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Completing
years of post-secondary education, and gaining practice as an academic
professional, does not necessarily enable academic professionals and students
to have an ability to discern good academic writing.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, if academic professionals and
students supplement reading and writing skills by reference materials such as the
6<sup>th</sup> Edition of the American Psychological Association's (APA) Manual
(2010), the web sites of </span><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">The Little Brown Handbook and The Online English Grammar Guide as
well as from libraries, and other reliable sources, significant reading and
writing expertise</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> is gained.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Furthermore,
academic professionals and students who seek resources appraised by peers gain
assurance that the material presented is reliable.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, it is of the utmost importance that
when reviewing such material that one impose critical thinking skills, and not
assume that what is written and peer-reviewed is necessarily correct. </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0.95pt 2.15pt 2.9pt; mso-add-space: auto; tab-stops: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Courier New", Courier, monospace;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>For
example, Anonymous' (2010) composition recounts examples from the Bulwer-Lytton
Fiction Contest, the brain-child of the English Department at San Jose State
University sponsoring the contest, which is "a whimsical literary
competition that challenges entrants to compose the opening sentence to the
worst of all possible novels" (para 6).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>While this article is locatable in the ProQuest database, the article is
not peer-reviewed nor is Kelly's (1999) or Smith's (1999) articles according to
ProQuest. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, Kelly (1999) notes
that Professor Sokal, a </span><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">New
York University physics professor, was <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">"</span>published
in a respected journal, Social Text, (which) was thoroughly researched and
footnoted, but was essentially nonsense" (para 3)<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Professor Sokal (Kelly, 1999)
purposely wrote his article as a test for the staff at Social Text to see if
his thesis would be challenged, and remarkably, it was not. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>While peer-reviewed articles offer academic
professionals a means to evaluate good academic writing, academic professionals
must frequently evaluate non-peer-reviewed student compositions, which requires
the use of expertise attained using other means such as from the APA (2010) as
previously mentioned.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></span></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0.95pt 2.15pt 2.9pt; mso-add-space: auto; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New", Courier, monospace;">Common
Writing Mistakes of Academic Writers</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; tab-stops: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Courier New", Courier, monospace;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Academic writers' common writing
mistakes include attributes such as d</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">ense, "obscure, often incomprehensible writing"
(Kelly, 1999, para 2), "jargon-filled" rhetoric (para 11), and
"incomprehensible sentence structure" (Smith, 1999, para 1). <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In addition, academic writers frequently avoid
authenticity while writing because it "</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri;">requires more courage and more
hard work than being educated since it can only be achieved by standing alone
from, and by becoming independent of, those surrounding communal voices and
texts"</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"> (Badley,
2008, p. 364). <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Badley (2008) also wrote
that "l</span><span style="color: #292526; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri;">ess proficient writers tend to write syntheses
by simply borrowing sentences and connecting information from each source,
without elaboration and integration" (p. 422).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Badley's (2008) research demonstrated that
"When considering top-level (composition) structure, paragraphing, topic
sentences and use of conclusion, students’ pre-test written syntheses scarcely
met the structural criteria of a good exposition" (p. 434 ).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0.95pt 2.15pt 2.9pt; mso-add-space: auto; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New", Courier, monospace;">Criticisms
of Poor Academic Writers</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0.95pt 2.15pt 2.9pt; mso-add-space: auto; tab-stops: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Courier New", Courier, monospace;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Smith (1999) wrote that "scholars
(are) increasingly making themselves irrelevant" (para 7).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In an attempt to fit ideological agendas,
academic writers change the structure of words and sentences, which distorts meaning
(Smith, 1999).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Kelly (1999) indicates that a "</span>major factor in tolerance of
bad writing has been a lack of hard-nosed editing by academic journals" <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">(para 18).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>More up-to-date evaluations of academic writing provides insight about
whether improvements in academic writing prevail or not since 1999.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For example, Addison and McGee (2010) wrote
that "</span></span><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri;">college faculty are not adequately
preparing students for required writing tasks in the private or government
sector</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">" (p. 164), and recommend that "</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri;">an online peer-reviewed journal
(be) established that allows for more timely and detailed reports than possible
with print publications" (p. 171).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>A preponderance for academic writers to make w</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">riting
mistakes continues as they create "</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">incomprehensible writing and factionalism, resulting even
more in their diminishment and incoherence" (Smith, 1999, para 2).<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0.95pt 2.15pt 2.9pt; mso-add-space: auto; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New", Courier, monospace;">Avoiding
Poor Academic Writing</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; tab-stops: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Courier New", Courier, monospace;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The focus of good academic writing
is well stated by James Cook University (2011): "Good writing is
unambiguous. The reader does not have to make a choice about what the writer
possibly means" (James Cook University, 2011, para 24), and ambiguousness
is avoided by using concrete rather than abstract terms (</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Australia's James Cook
University, 2011).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The James Cook
University (2011) summarizes other core principles and characteristics for
academic writing.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Core principles
include a "reader-centred approach, outlining and drafting, a clear
layout, logical presentation of material, pre-emption of reader’s questions,
parallel structure, concise writing, precise details and information as well as
good grammar, spelling and punctuation" (para 6).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Characteristics of academic writing include
that "<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">all </span>statements can be
supported by evidence; paragraphs have a single, but developed, theme;
paragraphs begin with a theme sentence; (contain) neutral language; omit slang
and jargon; avoid pronouns; (have a) judicious use of adjectives; (contain)
precise information, verbs and word choice" (James Cook University, 2011,
para 9).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; tab-stops: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Courier New", Courier, monospace;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Addison
and McGee (2010) further indicated that college faculty identified "th</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri;">e
five most important characteristics of good writing as…organization…analysis
data/ideas/arguments, and use of supporting evidence" (p. 166).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Supporting the five characteristics is the
systematic step-by-step writing process, which includes prewriting, higher
order concerns, lower order concerns, and editing.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>By learning and applying proven writing
processes, poor academic writing is avoided.</span></span></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; tab-stops: .5in; text-align: center;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="font-family: "Courier New", Courier, monospace;">Conclusion</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: 200%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt; tab-stops: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="font-family: "Courier New", Courier, monospace;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>This
paper presented an analysis of (1) how academic professionals gain insight into
good academic writing, (2) common mistakes by academic writers, (3) criticisms
against poor academic writing, and (4) solutions for avoiding poor academic
writing.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Analyzing and critiquing
sources, which elaborate upon good writing mechanics as provided by the APA and
other reliable references, creates a standardized across-the-board utility when
academic writing is required and produced for evaluation.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Knowledge of common writing mistakes, and how
to avoid such mistakes provides writers with the basic and advanced skills
required for today's doctoral learners' writing activities.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: "Courier New", Courier, monospace;">
</span><br />
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="font-family: "Courier New", Courier, monospace;">References:</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<br /></div>
<span style="font-family: "Courier New", Courier, monospace;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Addison, J., & McGee, S.J.
(2010, September). Writing in high school/writing in college: Research trends and future
directions. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">College Composition and
Communication</i>, (62)1, p. 147.
Retrieved January 9, 2011, from ProQuest. <o:p></o:p></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Courier New", Courier, monospace;">
<b><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Courier New", Courier, monospace;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Anonymous
(2010, April 3). Robert Rector: Bad writing gets its just reward. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">San Gabriel Valley Tribune</i>. Retrieved January 8, 2011, from ProQuest.<o:p></o:p></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Courier New", Courier, monospace;">
</span><br />
<div class="MsoNormalCxSpMiddle" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-font-kerning: 18.0pt;"><span style="font-family: "Courier New", Courier, monospace;">American Psychological
Association (2010). <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Publication manual of
the American Psychological Association,
6<sup>th</sup> Ed</i>. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association. <o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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</span><br />
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="font-family: "Courier New", Courier, monospace;">Badley, G. (2008). Developing (authentic?) academic writers.
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Quality Assurance in Education</i>, (16), 4, p. 363. Retrieved January 10,
2011, from ProQuest. <o:p></o:p></span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "Courier New", Courier, monospace;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-font-kerning: 18.0pt;">James Cook University
(2011). What is effective academic writing? Retrieved January 9, 2011,<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>from </span><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><a href="https://egrs.jcu.edu.au/workshops/">https://egrs.jcu.edu.au/workshops/</a></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Courier New", Courier, monospace;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">academic-writing-workshops/what-is-effective-academic-writing<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p> </o:p></span></span><br />
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="font-family: "Courier New", Courier, monospace;">Kelly, R. (1999, April 8). Bad
blood over bad writing: <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Critics say US
academic language has become so
convoluted that it is largely incomprehensible to the point where argument<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>is becoming impossible</span>. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Irish Times</i>, p. 15. Retrieved
January 8, 2011, from Proquest.<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p> </o:p></span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "Courier New", Courier, monospace;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Smith, D. (1999, March 7). Academic: When the
writing is bad, ideas get lost. <span class="italic"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Winston - Salem Journal</i>, </span>p. 17. Retrieved
January 8, 2011, from ProQuest</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri;"><o:p></o:p></span></span><br />
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<br /></div>Deborah L. Popovicihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00026428885357985185noreply@blogger.com5tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5648944957694608174.post-48467583859358745342012-04-01T17:29:00.001-04:002012-04-01T17:29:17.054-04:00Teaching and Learning Paradigms for Successful Online LearningTo
effectively achieve successful adult online learning, best practices based upon
empirical research must continue to evolve via new paradigms.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Until such time that research is sufficiently
conducted and reported, considerations about the most critical paradigms
required for successful online teaching and learning for the adult student can
be sourced from the opinions in recent literature as presented herein.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The prevailing paradigm includes online
teaching and learning practices that places more responsibility upon the
learner.<br />
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<span lang="EN" style="mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">For example, today's online
teaching and learning paradigms encompass skills as Dabbagh (2007) explains
that include "</span><span style="color: black;">online learners (who) must
be ready to share their work, interact within small and large groups in virtual
settings, and collaborate on projects online or otherwise risk isolation in a
community growing increasingly dependent on connectivity and interaction"
(par. 9).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Learners' preparations for
online learning include a strong comfort level with writing, using Web
technologies, and computer proficiency (Dabbagh, 2007).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Furthermore, online learners should have acquired
“self-discipline, self-monitoring, self-initiative, and self-management, which
are characteristics of self-regulated or self-directed learning" (Dabbagh,
2007, par. 10), which are especially critical due to the physical absence of an
instructor. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<span style="color: black;">A Community of Practice (COP) is a
"pedagogical model grounded in a theory of learning as a social process
and implemented in an online context through knowledge networks, asynchronous
learning networks, and other Internet and Web-based collaborative and
communication technologies" (Dabbagh, 2007, par. 10).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>An online learner's "need for
affiliation manifests itself in online learning environments" (Dabbagh,
2007, par. 10), which is an example of a COP. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Knowledge-sharing is recognized as intellectual
capital. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Although online learning
typically includes skills that enable learners to "(a) act competently on
their own; (b) have confidence in their knowledge, skills, and performance; and
(c) learn how to create and manage a personal presence" (Dabbagh, 2007,
par. 13), learners' needs for affiliation are paramount to achieving <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>success in an online learning environment.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The collaborative skills required for online
learning include "social learning skills, discursive or dialogical skills,
self and group evaluation skills, and reflection skills" (Dabbagh, 2007,
par. 15).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
The Illinois Online Network and the Board of Trustees of the
University of Illinois (2010) wrote that successful online teaching and
learning provides an a<span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">ccessibility
to technology, and online instructors who promote a comfortable learning
atmosphere.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A powerful element in
today's online learning paradigms ensures that curriculums are developed or
converted according to online learning needs. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
Castro (2012) mirrors Dabbagh's (2007) comments above in
that teachers and students no longer exist in the online learning environment
as individuals but instead as "participants in a dynamic and collective
system of meaning" (p. 165).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Furthermore, the parameters of how learners and administration view
online teachers should also include teachers as "images, objects, events,
encounters, and so on" (Castro, 2012, p. 165).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>"If learning exists at multiple scales,
from cellular to cultural, then so does teaching" (Castro, 2012, p. 165).</div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Further
support of the paradigm that addresses learners' increased participation in
their learning is noted by Tu, Sujo-montes, Yen, Chan, & Blocher (2012) who
wrote that "</span>learners have freedom to access, create, and recreate
their learning content; and they have opportunities to interact outside of a learning
system" (p. 13).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Educators focusing
on “social, open, and network aspects have integrated various Web 2.0 technologies
to support their existing online instruction in a learning management system
(LMS)" (Tu et al., 2012, p. 13).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Tu
et al. (2012) remarked that "integrating multiple tools simultaneously is
the best strategy for infusing teaching and learning paradigms" (p. 13).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<br />
Consequently, Tu et al. (2012) noted that social
networking tools represent new teaching and learning potentialities, and have
resulted in a "fundamental shift in the way students learn, consume, and
produce new artifacts" (p. 13).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Web
2.0 integration has required a modification <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>from a "more teacher and institution-centered
mindset to more distributed, personalized effort and collaboration" (Tu et
al., 2012, p. 13). <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Tu et al. (2012) also
recommended that to avoid the <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>potential for
any disconcerting impact on learning using Web 2.0 integration, teachers can
use Open Network Learning Environments (ONLE), and ask students to construct
their own Personal Learning Environments (PLE), which can support an effective
open network for communicating, interacting, and collaborating.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Learning Management Systems that include a PLE
and ONLE <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>enable learners and educational
institutions to successfully "prepare competent global digital citizens (who
can) create, share, and collaborate digital learning content and resources in
global communities regardless of their socioeconomic status and geographic
locations" (Tu et al., 2012, p. 18).<br />
<br />
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<span lang="EN" style="mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Reflecting perspectives as
noted above, Shovein, Huston, Fox, & Damazo (2005) wrote that </span><span lang="EN" style="mso-ansi-language: EN;">teachers can influence "an awakening
awareness" (par. 10) in others when the learning environment possesses a "milieu
of freedom and gives greater than usual prominence to educational experiences
in which personal involvement is magnified and intensified" (par.
10).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In continuing support of the above
successful teaching and learning theories, Shovin et al. (2005)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>wrote that current paradigms include elements
wherein "students and teachers are responsible together for education, students
are responsible for critically considering reality, the teacher relinquish(es)
control and exchanges the role of narrator for one of student among students"
(par. 11). <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Teachers can experience new
freedoms by "consulting with and by engaging students in meaningful dialogue"
(Shovein et al., 2005, par. 13).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<span lang="EN" style="mso-ansi-language: EN;">New teaching and
learning paradigms using technology have transferred teachers into the role as
mediator and coach using encouragement to aid learners in developing knowledge
more actively.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Shovein, </span><span lang="EN" style="mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Huston, Fox, & Damazo </span><span lang="EN" style="mso-ansi-language: EN;">(2005) indicated that teachers are increasingly challenged
due to a heavier responsibility for engaging and encouraging "authentic,
meaningful dialogue that promotes caring in all learning situations, regardless
of the activities or technology used to support the pedagogy" (par. 22). <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In fact, a prominent challenge for teachers is
to not find the "best" e-tool but finding the highest quality answers
to the many "learning challenges inherent in a global, information-based
society" (par. 23).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Answering
challenges associated with today's online teaching and learning technologies
that have affected the increased proliferation of learners wanting to be more
responsible and participatory in their own learning achievements have impacted
the degree of success in yesterday's paradigms, which are evolving into today's
and tomorrow's teaching and learning paradigms.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt;">
<span lang="EN" style="mso-ansi-language: EN;">References:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none;">
Castro,
J.C. (2012, Winter). <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Learning and
teaching art: Through social media. </span><i>Studies in Art Education</i><span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">, 53(2), 152. Retrieved from</span> ProQuest
Research Library.<span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="color: black; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Dabbagh, N. (2007).
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The online learner: Characteristics and
pedagogical implications</i>. Retrieved from <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><a href="http://www.citejournal.org/vol7/iss3/general/article1.cfm"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">http://www.citejournal.org/vol7/iss3/general/article1.cfm</span></a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<br />
Illinois Online Network and the Board of Trustees of
the University of Illinois<span style="color: #006699;">. (</span>2010). <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Weaknesses of online learning</i>. Retrieved
from <span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"><a href="http://www.ion.uillinois.edu/resources/tutorials/overview/weaknesses.asp">http://www.ion.uillinois.edu/</a></span><a href="http://www.ion.uillinois.edu/resources/tutorials/overview/weaknesses.asp"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">resources/tutorials/overview/weaknesses.asp</span></a><o:p></o:p><br />
<br />
<span lang="EN" style="mso-ansi-language: EN; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Shovein, J., Huston,
C., Fox, S., & Damazo, B. (2005, November-December). <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="mso-font-kerning: 18.0pt;">Challenging traditional teaching
and learning paradigms: Online learning and emancipatory teaching.</span></i><span style="mso-font-kerning: 18.0pt;"> Retrieved from <a href="http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb3317/is_6_26/ai_n29227982/pg_3/?tag=content;col1">h</a></span><a href="http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb3317/is_6_26/ai_n29227982/pg_3/?tag=content;col1"></a></span><a href="http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb3317/is_6_26/ai_n29227982/pg_3/?tag=content;col1">ttp://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb3317/is_6_26/ai_n29227982/pg_3/?tag=content;col1</a><br />
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">Tu, C., Sujo-montes, L., Yen,
C., Chan, J., & Blocher, M. (2012, May-June). The integration of </span><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">personal learning
environments & open network learning environments. </span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><a href="http://search.proquest.com.proxy1.ncu.edu/results.lateralsearchlinkbypubid:lateralsearch/sng/pubtitle/TechTrends/$N/40581?t:ac=135C956BA46D114FDB/1&t:cp=maintain/resultcitationblocks" title="Click to search for more items from this journal"><span style="color: windowtext; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; text-decoration: none; text-underline: none;">TechTrends</span></a></i>,
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin: 0in 0in 0pt; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman";">56(3), 13-19. Retrieved from
ProQuest Education Journals.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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</div>Deborah L. Popovicihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00026428885357985185noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5648944957694608174.post-90639307129217186642012-03-26T19:25:00.001-04:002012-03-26T19:27:45.663-04:00Musings from a Christian...paying it forwardThe Lord paid the ultimate sacrifice after pain and suffering that no person will ever know the depth of. He never asked for anything for himself because His Father gave Him everything He needed. What has humankind given Jesus but mostly sadness and heartache…whenever we disobey, whenever we break one of His laws, and whenever our will supercedes the Lord’s, these things make Him sad. Is sadness the gift we have paid forward from the gift the Lord gave humankind?<br /> <br />After the milleniums since the Lord gave up His spirit to His Father, paying forward His gift becomes more and more silent. Becoming more silent arises from disobedience because the Lord wants us to love and protect each other. What happens instead? Instead of praising the Lord, and paying forward His gift–dying so our sins were forever forgiven–people praise celebrities, athletes, musicians, and many, many others, and spend most of their time instant messaging, texting, electronic socializing, emailing, watching TV, playing videogames, and doing so many other things of the electronic age. Why has humankind gotten so far away from loving each other, and instead seek ways to hurt each other? Paying the Lord’s gift forward starts with just one person’s effort. Let me know how you’re paying the Lord’s gift forward, if you can.Deborah L. Popovicihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00026428885357985185noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5648944957694608174.post-14270543389788184202012-03-25T18:15:00.003-04:002012-03-25T18:19:23.968-04:00Andragogical and Pedagogical Teaching TheoriesCarlson (1989) presented a notable passage by Knowles, which stated that "teaching is a process of guided interaction between the teacher, the student, and the materials of instruction... Teaching, like medical practice, is mostly a matter of cooperation with nature. The function of the teacher is to guide the student into the kind of experiences that will enable him (sic) to develop his own natural potentialities" (pars. 17).<br /><br />Choosing which theory to use or mix of theories should depend upon the student's needs.<br /><br />Reference:<br /><br />Carlson, R. (1989, Spring). Malcolm Knowles: Apostle of andragogy. Vitae Scholasticae, 8(1). Retrieved from http://www.nl.edu/academics/cas/<br />ace/resources/malcolmknowles.cfmDeborah L. Popovicihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00026428885357985185noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5648944957694608174.post-37621074999939222772012-03-10T12:16:00.007-05:002012-03-13T22:29:35.763-04:00Best Practices Designing Research Purpose & QuestionsBest Practices for Devising a Research Purpose Statement and Questions <br /><br />The purpose of this paper is to demonstrate how Research Purpose Statements and Research Questions can be improved using suggestions provided by Creswell (2008), Aveyard (2007), and others. Synthesizing the many sections of a dissertation by novice researchers requires the ability to identify a research problem. Learning "how to properly construct and develop logical argumentation for a problem statement" (Ellis and Levy, 2008, p. 19) provides the doctoral student with additional skills over time. <br /><br />Background of Nardone's Dissertation<br /><br />Nardone (2009) submitted a dissertation entitled "Reputation in America’s graduate schools of education: A study of the perceptions and influences of graduate school of education deans and school superintendents regarding U.S. News & World Report’s Ranking of “Top Education Programs”. The purpose of the study was to "explore the perceptions and influences of the respondents to the U.S. News and World Report’s (USNWR) annual reputational survey for Graduate Schools of Education (GSOEs). The respondents represented two unique stakeholder groups for Graduate Schools of Education: GSOE deans and school superintendents" (Nardone, 2009, p. 6).<br /><br />Research Purpose Statement Revised<br /><br />Appropriately critiquing a doctoral-level paper requires an understanding of what defines a Research Purpose Statement (RPS). Creswell (2008) provides such a definition by writing that the RPS "advances the overall direction or focus for the study" albeit quantitative and/or qualitative studies, and consists of one or two well formed sentences. The RPS quite often lies within the Statement of the Problem section, and is frequently placed at the Introduction's end. <br /><br />Nardone's (2009) dissertation stated that the RPS was to "explore the perceptions and influences of the respondents to the U.S. News and World Report’s (USNWR) annual reputational survey for Graduate Schools of Education (GSOEs)" (p. 6). Although Nardone's (2009) RPS was stated in two sentences, a more profound problem exists with the beginning of her RPS sentence because she had previously indicated that her paper would address qualitative and quantitative research. To accommodate both types, Creswell (2008) pointed out that a quantitative study's RPS states that "the purpose of this study is to examine the relationship…" (p. 121) while a qualitative RPS states that "the purpose of the study is to explore…" (p. 121). <br /><br />As noted above, Nardone (2009) only used "explore" to signify her study's intention (quantitative) when she should have used words to reference both qualitative and quantitative. Not adjusting her RPS to accommodate both types is confusing to readers. An improved RPS would address that the purpose of the study was to examine the relationship between, and explore "the perceptions and influences of the respondents to the U.S. News and World Report’s (USNWR) annual reputational survey for Graduate Schools of Education (GSOEs)" (Nardone, 2009, p. 6). <br /><br />Research Questions Revised<br /><br />The research questions presented in a dissertation by Nardone (2009) included "three major research questions, and related sub-questions. One objective of the research is to identify, and quantify, the actual role that the reputational survey plays (based on respondents’ scores) in the USNWR GSOE rankings" (p. 8). Consequently, "prior research of the undergraduate rankings indicates that the reputational aspect significantly drives the overall ranking of the institutions" (Nardone, 2009, p. 8). <br /><br />Q1. "What is the significance of the reputational survey in U.S. News & World Report’s annual ranking of Graduate Schools of Education (GSOEs)?" (Nardone, 2009, p. 8). Exploring the behaviors and perceptions of the survey respondents—the GSOE deans and school superintendents—is another objective of the research. Nardone (2009) explains that:<br /><br />Research explores the respondents' perceptions about the GSOE rankings themselves, in terms of what purpose the rankings might serve, and their perceptions about the reputational survey component of these rankings. More specifically, the study aims to understand their level of awareness of the reputational survey, their understanding of their impact on the rankings, their level of responsiveness to the survey, and their methods and approach to responding to the survey. Why do they, or do they not, respond to the survey? Do they personally respond to the survey? Do they consult with other colleagues? An important emphasis of the research will be on exploring the differences in perceptions and behaviors between these two stakeholder groups. These objectives are captured in the second research question. (p. 8).<br /><br />Q2. "How do GSOE deans and school superintendents differ in their perceptions about, responsiveness to, approach to, and behavior regarding, the reputational survey in U.S. News & World Report’s annual ranking of GSOEs?" (Nardone, 2009, p. 9). Nardone (2009) states:<br /><br />Finally, this research will explore the concept of reputation with these survey respondents. The literature indicates that reputation is generally conceptualized as either prominence or as perceived quality. This research asks the two stakeholder groups what forms the basis of their rating of institutions when responding to the USNWR survey. Do they consider the quality of the program graduates? Do they consider the quality and production (output) of faculty research? Do they consider the glossy promotional materials that cross their desk? Do they consider the level of sponsored research? Do they consider student selectivity? Do they consider the published rankings themselves? This will explore whether this important ranking category captures reputation as either prominence, or perceived quality. Again, an important emphasis is the examination of the differences between the two stakeholder groups. Thus, the third research question. (p. 9). <br /><br />Q3. "How do these two unique stakeholder groups differ, when rating the GSOEs, in their conceptual definition of reputation—reputation as prominence, or reputation as perceived quality?" (Nardone, 2009, p. 9).<br /><br />This study does not join the active debate over the best indicators or measures of quality, but instead accepts “reputation” as an asset of value for the university and explores the perceptions and behaviors of two stakeholder groups involved in the rating of academic reputation. (p. 9).<br /><br />After reviewing Nardone's (2009) research questions several times, and comparing the questions against Nardone's (2009) Research Problem Statement, which was to "explore the perceptions and influences of the respondents to the U.S. News and World Report’s (USNWR) annual reputational survey for Graduate Schools of Education (GSOEs)" (p. 6), my general impression is that the RPS is not broadly stated enough to encompass all of the research questions. Since one of the goals of the RPS is to be precise, and then suggesting that the RPS is not broad enough, my opinion is that Nardone (2009) is attempting to integrate too many research questions. <br /><br />To reiterate, the three research questions are: Q1. "What is the significance of the reputational survey in U.S. News & World Report’s annual ranking of Graduate Schools of Education (GSOEs)?" (Nardone, 2009, p. 8); Q2. "How do GSOE deans and school superintendents differ in their perceptions about, responsiveness to, approach to, and behavior regarding, the reputational survey in U.S. News & World Report’s annual ranking of GSOEs?" (Nardone, 2009, p. 9); and, Q3. "How do these two unique stakeholder groups differ, when rating the GSOEs, in their conceptual definition of reputation—reputation as prominence, or reputation as perceived quality?" (Nardone, 2009, p. 9). As mentioned, my impression is that there is some duplication between Q2 and Q3, and this is because both questions ask, "How do GSOE deans and school superintendents differ?". <br /><br />The list of topics Nardone (2009) has chosen to cover in the research questions is overwhelming. The Research Problem Statement revised as previously discussed is to examine the relationship between, and explore "the perceptions and influences of the respondents to the U.S. News and World Report’s (USNWR) annual reputational survey for Graduate Schools of Education (GSOEs)" (Nardone, 2009, p. 6). The associated unrevised research questions are: Q1. "What is the significance of the reputational survey in U.S. News & World Report’s annual ranking of Graduate Schools of Education (GSOEs)?" (Nardone, 2009, p. 8); Q2. "How do GSOE deans and school superintendents differ in their perceptions about, responsiveness to, approach to, and behavior regarding, the reputational survey in U.S. News & World Report’s annual ranking of GSOEs?" (Nardone, 2009, p. 9); and, Q3. "How do these two unique stakeholder groups differ, when rating the GSOEs, in their conceptual definition of reputation—reputation as prominence, or reputation as perceived quality?" (Nardone, 2009, p. 9).<br /><br />After revising the above, the Problem Statement and Research Questions are:<br />Problem Statement: Explore the perceptions and influences of the respondents to the U.S. News and World Report’s (USNWR) annual reputational survey for Graduate Schools of Education (GSOEs). Questions: 1. What is the significance of the reputational survey? 2. How do GSOE deans and school superintendents differ in their perceptions about, responsiveness to, approach to, and behavior regarding, the reputational survey. 2. How do these two unique stakeholder groups differ, when rating the GSOEs, in their conceptual definition of reputation? To provide a revision of the Research Questions so that consistencies and differences are identified (via meta-ethnography and meta-synthesis) (Aveyard, 2007, p. 108) with the Problem Statement, the final suggested revision is: Q1. How do GSOE deans and school superintendents differ in their perceptions about, responsiveness to, approach to, and behavior regarding, the reputational survey? <br /><br />Conclusion<br /><br />The purpose of this paper was two-fold: revising the research purpose statement and revising research questions presented by Nardone's (2009) dissertation entitled, Reputation in America’s graduate schools of education: A study of the perceptions and influences of graduate school of education deans and school superintendents regarding U.S. News & World Report’s Ranking of “Top Education Programs". Coincidentally, the subject of Nardone's (2009) dissertation mirrors one of the dissertation subjects chosen for my doctorate program, which is to research why the ranking of America's institutes of learning continues to fall when compared with global learning institutes. Working on assignments for EDU7002 serves two purposes: submitting the required work for EDU7002 (and other future courses), and assessing literature, which provides excellent opportunities to develop skills in preparing dissertation-level papers in the future. <br /><br />References<br /><br />Aveyard, H. (2007). Doing a literature review in health and social care: A practical guide. Great Britain, UK: Open University Press. Retrieved from Northcentral University E-brary.<br /><br />Creswell, J.W. (2008). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. <br /><br />Ellis, T.J., & Levy, Y. (2008). Framework of problem-based research: A guide for novice researchers on the development of a research-worthy problem. Informing Science: The International Journal of an Emerging Transdiscipline, (11), p. 17. Retrieved from http://inform.nu/Articles/Vol11/ISJv11p017-033Ellis486.pdf<br /><br />Nardone, M.S. (2009). Reputation in America’s graduate schools of education: A study of the perceptions and influences of graduate school of education deans and school superintendents regarding U.S. News & World Report’s Ranking of “Top Education Programs”. Dissertation retrieved from Northcentral University's Library's ProQuest.Deborah L. Popovicihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00026428885357985185noreply@blogger.com6tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5648944957694608174.post-10912619065427585422012-03-10T12:02:00.002-05:002012-03-10T12:06:00.662-05:00Assessment Criteria for Learning Events, Assisting Learning, and Rich Online AttributesThis article presents examples of, and the assessment criteria for a training event, the factors that assist learning, the attributes of a previous successful training event, and an evaluation of the characteristics of a rich online learning event. Many of the following comments are sourced from past experiences of training provided by employers. However, the more valuable learning experiences were gained from traditional classrooms, and e-learning occurring during the pursuit of two completed online degrees, which have now supplanted the length of time in face-to-face instruction. E-tools can maintain engagement, but should not be used to the extent that it wastes learners' time. Whether online or offline, the criterion of a rich learning event depends upon how well learning is accomplished, and not how well learning is transmitted. <br /><br />Assessment Criteria of a Training Event<br /><br />The criteria used to assess whether an educational or training event was good or bad has over time changed as experiences and expertise during three and one-half decades of work experience grew. Personal and professional experiences as well as professional expertise affected the assessment criteria for a training event as these three aforementioned factors impacted the multi-layered depths of gained wisdom, personal and professional needs, and expected accomplishment anticipated based upon self-efficacy. For example, in the early period of my professional career, a sense of naivety resulted in accepting all information as truth, and of the highest possible quality. However, my assessment criteria modified, and demanded more benefits for the time and expense devoted to the training event. Consequently, understanding grew that gaining knowledge is primarily the learner's responsibility whether in a training event or not. <br /><br />Palloff and Pratt (2001) indicated that staff who are well trained, know their material, and provide up-to-the-minute information on the topics presented encourages learning. Instructors who show that they have been successful in their profession, recognized by their peers, and credentialed and possibly published, provide a sense of reliability to learners. Being provided an appropriate tool to self-evaluate one's learning, and being able to realize knowledge transferability are critical for learning. Whether training is online or not, when an employer or future employer accepts that completed training is of value, the instructional event provided value.<br /><br />Factors that Assist Learning<br /> <br />The factors that help me to learn include several features. For example, an instructor who does not reflect a sense of being rushed appeals to an ability for a learner to focus. Motivators for learning include when training aids people to change job types, retrain, or are provided training for getting or retaining jobs (Maeroff, 2003). Learners are additionally motivated when employers demonstrate that the new learning is of value, that the training adds applicability to the job, and to career development. Palloff and Pratt (2001) promoted using e-learning tools for synchronous and asynchronous discussion boards, e-mailing, group work, providing beneficial links, an ability to upload or download graphics and audiovisual elements, and a tracking ability for the learner to have quick access to earlier work. Using technology increases students' learning of the course content, the ability to achieve learning outcomes, and promoting the interactive needs of the student. Learning is assisted when flexibility exists in course authoring, assessment tools are appropriately chosen based on the desired learning outcomes rather than the available technology, there is well based planning by the institution's stakeholders, and accessibility exists for all learners despite cultural, linguistic, physical, or financial differences (Palloff and Pratt, 2001).<br /><br />Attributes of a Previously Successful Training Event<br /> <br />A previous rich learning experience was successful because the benefits achieved from the trainer and learning materials immediately impacted an improvement of a work skill. For example, when placed in orientation side-by-side with a supervisor, and immediately practicing the information gained using a computer, learning was extremely accelerated. Other attributes from learning events included feeling respected by the instructor and other participants when contributing during training, an ability for speakers to answer questions immediately or shortly thereafter, gaining heightened confidence after speaking in public, having quality technical equipment and learning materials, and learning in a comfortable environment that promoted interaction with colleagues. Palloff and Pratt (2001) recognized that e-learning materials improved learning when applicable for all "learning styles" (p. 50). <br /> <br />Maeroff (2003) indicated that "institutions have tailored courses to the specifications of individual business' needs" (p. 125). Businesses and colleges who are aiding minds to work need to work together in establishing strategies for learner outcomes. Businesses, after all, are more "aggressive innovators" (Maeroff, 2003, p. 124). Learning programs and courses' designs must be developed based upon the needs of employers and their goals, which create customized learning experiences and employability. <br /> <br />Broadbent (2002) presented six levels of learning reminiscent of the types of training incurred in the past: "knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation" (p. 113). These levels present successful training because new knowledge is promoted along the six levels during training beginning with new knowledge, and provides learning applicable to using that learning elsewhere at a near or far time. Instructors should accommodate different learning types in order for all to progress through the six learning levels (Broadbent, 2002). <br /><br />Rich Online Learning Characteristics<br /> <br />The characteristics of learning experiences necessary to provide rich online learning based upon over a decade of online instruction include several attributes. For example, the similarity of instructors to assess work using the same American Psychological Association's (APA), and other academically-designated writing standards provides non-conflicting learning. Learners gain valuable online learning experiences when there is a perceived value for the invested time and money as long as tuition is not increased after a program is begun when learning values remain as assessed before beginning. Rich online learning includes technical aspects that are user-friendly, server stable, easily available for signing-in, and have a provision for posting and retrieving work. In addition, universities with online programs should provide an online directory of major staff and contact information instead of just one person per department. The availability of e-learning class materials and online resources such as a library, learning tools, forms, forums, and so forth enhance online learning. Accreditation must be in order, and availability to credentialing agencies provided. The similarity of required technical software and hardware from class to class promotes user-friendliness, and progressively availing improved e-tools to learning is essential. Responses from instructors and university staff should be within twenty-four hours. <br /><br />Learning outcomes must be challenging for all students whether a GPA is high or low, and not one-size-fits-all. Classmates' writing needs to be at a level where all can understand the context. Assignments should be aligned with students' situations so when a student has never practiced as a teacher the assignment is not based upon a practicing teacher's experiences. End-of-class assessments need to be responded to when requested. Mentors should provide feedback every time work is submitted due to the expertise provided by them. A rich online experience provides a program's requirements to fit the need of students such as enabling students to take courses needed to learn job goals, or should provide enough flexibility to do so. <br /> <br />Palloff and Pratt (2001) indicated that the development of policies and procedures enables a curriculum to provide increasing skill in critical thinking and analysis as well as peer collaboration. Strategies should be identified cooperatively between administration and faculty addressing the "changing cultural, organizational, economic, and survival issues of the institution" (Palloff and Pratt, 2001, p. 38), and implemented. An obvious "investment in the technical infrastructure needed to support" (Palloff, et al., 2001, p. 42) the implemented strategies is essential. Pedagogical methods should supersede technological attributes, and learning content linked to e-tools that best support them (e.g., provide interactive simulations versus static traditional books). Obvious development of e-learning courses and programs should be provided by the faculty senate and administrators, and a university's departments should use the same quality measurements (Palloff and Pratt, 2001). An effort to retain online students must be exhibited by the university's support systems via a "learner-centered focus" (Palloff and Pratt, 2001, p. 47). <br /> <br />The work completed by students must be appraised by instructors and plagiarism tools to ensure legitimacy to the greatest extent possible (Maeroff, 2003). Broadbent (2002) suggested that online instructors should assimilate effective learning models such as Gagne's or Salmon's who identified five stages in successful e-learning. When e-learning courses are thoughtfully planned, designed, and provided based upon the needs and culture of the provider and learners, a rich online learning event is possible. <br /><br />Conclusion<br /> <br />This paper presented examples of, and the assessment criteria for a training event, the factors that assist learning, the attributes of a previously successful training event, and an evaluation of the characteristics of a rich online learning event. Keeping in mind the details of the above sections, the most important factor of e-learning is that "interactive learning keeps students energized, and helps participants absorb information and remember it" (Broadbent, 2002, p. 120). Successful online instructors who enable learners to interact can be assured that when the moment of interaction occurs is the moment of when learning occurs.<br /><br /><br />References<br /><br />Broadbent, B. (2002). ABCs of e-learning: Reaping the benefits and avoiding the pitfalls. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass/Pfeiffer. <br /><br />Maeroff, G.I. (2003). A classroom of one: How online learning is changing our schools and colleges. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan. <br /><br />Palloff, R.M., & Pratt, K. (2001). Lessons from the cyberspace classroom: The realities of online teaching. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass/Pfeiffer.Deborah L. Popovicihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00026428885357985185noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5648944957694608174.post-1323113612357531772012-03-09T21:47:00.003-05:002012-03-09T21:51:46.666-05:00Higher Order Concerns in Academic Writing: Chronology, Order of Importance and GeneralityThree Examples of Higher Order Concerns in Writing Academically<br /><br />1. Chronology<br /><br />Having been a victim of bullying at a country-based grade school during the 1970s, the subject of bullying continues to intrigue me as it increasingly manifests in today's society to the point of causing suicide. With the ever-increasing use of the social networks on the internet, and a mounting ability for most grade-school students to have a cell phone and personal computer, cyber-bullying is quickly becoming a typical phenomenon. Consequently, empowering grade school children and parents with tools to avoid cyber-bullying has become a common topic in the 21st century. <br /> <br />A recent report by the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry (2008) revealed that almost fifty-percent of school children experience bullying, and that experiencing bullying affects academic performance, and the social and emotional development of school children. Empowering grade school children and parents with tools to avoid cyber-bullying requires research into the technical security aspects of e-communications such as provided by cell phones, computers, and other e-tools. While schools can prevent use of e-tools like cell phones and computers during school hours, students and parents carry the responsibility of after-school e-tool use. <br /> <br />2. Order of Importance<br /><br />Empowering grade school children and parents with tools to avoid cyber-bullying has become an increasingly relevant topic of the 21st century. Having been a victim of bullying at a country-based grade school during the 1970s, the subject of bullying continues to intrigue me as it increasingly manifests in today's schools to the point of causing suicide. A recent report by the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry (2008) revealed that almost fifty-percent of school children experience bullying, and that experiencing bullying affects academic performance, and the social and emotional development of school children. Empowering grade school children and parents with tools to avoid cyber-bullying requires research into the security features of e-communications such as provided by cell phones and other e-tools. While schools can prevent use of e-tools like cell phones and computers during school hours, students and parents carry the responsibility of after-school e-tool use. <br /><br />3. Order of Generality<br /><br />Having been a victim of verbal bullying at a country-based grade school during the 1970s, the subject of bullying continues to intrigue me as it increasingly manifests in today's schools to the point of causing suicide. A recent report by the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry (2008) revealed that almost fifty-percent of grade school children experience bullying. Experiencing bullying affects academic performance, and the social and emotional development of school children (American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 2008). <br /> <br />Unfortunately, the widespread use of cell phones and social networking sites by grade school students to communicate with each other has manifested in additional avenues for transmitting abusive behavior. While schools can prevent the use of e-tools like cell phones and computers during school hours, students and parents carry the responsibility of after-school e-tool use. Empowering grade school children and parents with tools to avoid cyber-bullying requires research into the technical aspects of e-communications such as provided by cell phones and other e-tools. By providing students and parents with training on how to set up and implement the security features on cell phones and computers, abusive behaviors are avoidable. <br /><br /><br />References<br /><br />American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry. (2008, May). Bullying: Facts for families (No. 80). Retrieved January 17, 2010, from http://www.aacap.org/galleries/ FactsForFamilies/80_bullying.pdfDeborah L. Popovicihttp://www.blogger.com/profile/00026428885357985185noreply@blogger.com2