Monday, July 18, 2016
Update
I am honored that over 40,000 viewers have visited my blog. As of today...my status as an ABD (All but dissertation) remains. I offer online tutoring in successfully writing academic research as well as very low cost editing of research drafts, which includes proper ADA formatting. Please feel free to email me queries and comments. God bless America!!
Saturday, April 18, 2015
Greetings
Achieving success in academic pursuits can be compounded when one's school has a mission to hang on to a student to gain as much tuition money as possible rather than supporting a student with a 3.9 GPA to achieve their dissertation's approval. I've achieved my lifetime's goal in my academic pursuits despite that mission, which countered integrity. My blog is reaching 30,000 hits, and of this achievement I am proud. Many blessings to those who walk their own path.
Monday, March 4, 2013
Writing the Dissertation.....
Just wanted to update my blog. I am a few months from finishing my dissertation on the academic performance issues with American secondary students. I also want to thank Dr. Robin Throne for recently adding qualifications to me at my Indeed profile. I will add to my blog as time allows over the next few months. I am close to reaching 10,000 hits for the material in my blog, and that makes me happy that my writing may be of help to others. Thank you, and wish me luck on my PhD pursuit!
Sunday, December 16, 2012
Best Practices Relevant to Instructing Post-Secondary E-Learners
A review of critical elements in research
methodologies improves an instructor's research skills. Improving acumen in research methods by
examining academically grounded resources contributes to the adoption and
application of best practices. A review
of research methodologies follows. The research
studies reviewed include (a) e-learning technologies in a design-based research
(DBR) study by Bower (2011), (b) a faculty's motivational
factors affecting the integration of a learning management system by Gautreau (2011), (c) analysis of users' satisfaction with e-learning by
Chen and Lin (2008), (d) team learning in technology-mediated distributed teams by Andres
and Shipps (2010), and (e) field experiences promoting cross-cultural awareness
in preservice teachers by Malewski, Sharma, and Phillion (2012).
A Design-Based Research Study
Appraising
the design-based research (DBR) methodology included reviews of Bower (2011), Akilli
(2008), and Amiel and Reeves (2008). The
reviews included details about appraising validity and reliability in DBR
studies. An understanding of the
similarities and differences between research designs learned previously
provided a better analysis of Bower's (2011) study. Reviewing research by Akilli (2008), which
explained the differences between quantitative, qualitative, mixed methods, and
DBR methodologies, provided more comprehensive information than Bower (2011)
and Amiel and Reeves (2008). A review of
Akilli (2008) and Amiel and Reeves (2008) precedes the analysis of Bower's
(2011) study.
Akilli
(2008) wrote that the flexible processes used in DBR help designers and
instructors to expect and integrate changes repeatedly during the DBR
process. Such a design is reminiscent of
continuous quality improvements used in previous employment experiences. Quality improvements also require carefully
documented processes during retesting.
The
second article by Amiel and Reeves (2008) discussed that research methods that investigate
the learning functions of tools and techniques have weaknesses that DBR can resolve. In fact, Amiel and Reeves (2008) argued that some
researchers' work focusing upon in-use technologies to improve learning proffered
feeble systematic advice to instructors. Many educational researchers recommend DBR
methods because its goal strengthens the bridge between "educational
research and real-world problems" (Amiel and Reeves, 2008, p. 35). The methodology that coincides with DBR is
not prepared as a typical research design.
However, as noted above, DBR resolves weaknesses that other designs
cannot thereby contributing to improved learning. Therefore, an analysis of Bower's (2011)
study was included below.
The
Research Problem, Questions, or Hypotheses
Bower (2011) explained that using synchronous
web-conferencing tools is less complex than employing asynchronous e-tools. The characteristics of asynchronous
environments include (a) instructors who need in-services to keep technical
skills up-to-date, (b) an increasing use of e-tools as new tools replace older
tool, (c) learning institutes that need sufficient and progressive technical
systems, (d) consideration of learners' technical and collaborative skills, and
(e)
integration of e-tools within an institution's technical systems and
curriculums that demands vigilance (Bower, 2011). By using web-conferencing, instructors
introduce "less transmissive and more active distance learning
pedagogies" (Bower, 2011, p. 64). Barab and Squire (2004) remarked that rather
than identifying hypotheses, DBR
looks at several design elements that results in profiling a design's
attributes.
The Research Purpose
Bower (2011) posited that
web-conferencing was more successful than asynchronous learning because a
student's collaborative competency and technical skill is often sufficient for
web-conferencing but not for asynchronous learning. Improved success results in improved
knowledge construction. Students' and
instructors' cognitive load during learning technological and collaborative
skills increases stress that reduces abilities to learn and teach curricula
(Bower, 2011). Bower's (2011) research
purpose included identification of web-conferencing competencies, and its
impact on learning. Gaps exist in
literature regarding systematic empirical studies that tested student's and
instructor's collaborative skills in synchronous or asynchronous settings
(Bower, 2011).
The Type of Design and Elements of
the Design
The DBRs iterative method evaluates
an "innovative product or intervention …refines the innovation, and
produces design principles" (Amiel and Reeves, 2008, p. 34) usable by
future researchers. Bower (2011) also explained
instructors use DBR as a means to create models that support knowledge-building
in a naturalistic learning environment.
Bower's (2011) design elements included repetitive series of
"theory-based analysis, design, and testing" (p. 67). Apparently, these elements sought to extract
principles for generating useful learning platforms. Bower's (2011) intention for using DBR was
due to its capacity to validate genuine learning environments, and its
practicality for informing a learning design's solution.
Operational variables were
two-fold. The teacher who was also the
participant researcher recorded, and
reviewed lessons from an introductory computer programming class. The phenomenological framework included
documentation of observations by the teacher (Bower, 2011). Recording and documenting the learners' and
instructor's acumen occurred during synchronous collaboration (Bower, 2011). The data included the range of effects and relative
prevalence. DBRs variables are also characterized
by "multiple
dependent variables, including climate variables (such as collaboration among
learners, and available resources), outcome variables (such as learning of
content, and learning transfer), and system variables (such as dissemination, and
sustainability)" (Barab and Squire, 2004, p. 4).
The total sample studied over two
years during three semesters initially included 26 enrolled students
represented by nine females and 17 males.
However, a total of six students dropped the course leaving only 20
students by the study's end. Other
design elements included observation of three levels of synchronous
collaboration, which were operational, interactional, and managerial (Bower,
2011).
Details Regarding Threats to
Validity and How Resolved
Because
Bower (2011) did not refer to validity, a review of Sandoval and Bell (2004)
provided the necessary information to assess Bower's (2011) validity. No scientific analysis supported validity
within Bower's (2011) study. However, design-based
research parameters may not require such an analysis, and ultimately provide
valid results. Sandoval and Bell (2004)
indicated that significant discomfort arises from the research community with
educational research because scientific methods are not always employed.
However,
decreased threats to validity and reliability are achievable by methodological
alignment as observations redolent of DBR research occurs. For example, theoretical knowledge increases
due to observations over the course of a DBR that results in improved interventions
(Sandoval and Bell, 2004). Bower (2011)
could have infused validity by modifying the design to test emerging
assumptions as the study progressed. Educators
wishing to adopt Bower's (2011) observations cannot be assured that learning
outcomes would occur and Bower's (2011) could be detrimental to students.
Akilli
(2008) noted that DBR researchers have used mixed methods to assess
interventions' outcomes, and revised interventions accordingly. "Mixed methods warrants objectivity,
validity, credibility, and applicability of the findings" (Akilli, 2008,
p. 3) due to measurements between data.
As noted, Bower (2011) did not embrace mixed methods. Rather,
Bower's (2011) DBR focused upon "characterizing situations (as opposed to
controlling variables) (and) developing a profile or theory that characterizes
the design in practice (as opposed to simply testing hypotheses)" (Barab
and Squire, 2004, p. 3). Because
Bower (2011) did not employ research methods that could improve validation of
his findings, the meaning, significance, and ability to add to learning theory
was uncompelling.
If
Bower (2011) wanted to further theoretical knowledge for learning in academic
settings, Barab and Squire (2004) indicated that advancing knowledge required evidence-based
claims. Bower's (2011) research does not
fulfill the requirements of evidence-based claims. Until Bower (2011) responds to the
requirements of DBR as noted by Barab and Squire (2004) and others, the
robustness of Bower's (2011) study is unsupportable. Furthermore, Bower (2011) needs to address
validity associated with an approval from an institutional review board due to
the involvement of human participants.
Findings from Research and Implications
Bower (2011) reported that the
web-conferencing learning environment was associated with improved learner
satisfaction. For example, learners
received just-in-time web-conferencing training, which helped learners to
remember the technical steps to maneuver within the learning environment
(Bower, 2011). As learners'
proficiencies increased, learners gained more control of the learning environment,
and interactions climbed. Bower (2011)
observed that instructors' lower-level competencies, which used operational and
interaction skills, required less effort than higher level management and
designing competencies.
Less effective learning occurred due
to instructors misusing and misunderstanding the learning environment. Bower (2011) recommended pre-class tutorials
for overcoming instructors' and learners' incompetencies. Web-conferencing software negatively impacted
an ability for learners and the instructor to view each other (Bower, 2011).
When learning sessions are underway,
Bower (2011) recommended that instructors run two computers, which facilitates
improved session outcomes. Instructors
can scan everyone's activities immediately, and make technical adjustments
quickly while instruction is underway.
Bower (2011) recommended that schools ensure that learners receive the
technical training required prior to classes beginning not only because
learning improves significantly and empowers students but also because learners
expect that learning technologies will be at least the same as they currently
use and more.
Demographics and Motivations for Faculty
Adoption of a Learning Management System
Understanding the critical elements
of academically grounded research contributes to the adoption and application
of best practices. In anticipation of
teaching post-secondary online students in business or education curricula,
staying up-to-date on evolving learning technologies, strategies, and
applications requires expertise in evaluating peer-reviewed literature. Consequently, a review follows that discusses
research methodologies pertinent to the aforementioned specialization.
The Research Problem, Questions, or
Hypotheses
A
study by Gautreau (2011) investigated the motivational factors affecting an instructor's
implementation of an online learning management system (LMS). Gautreau's (2011) literature review revealed that
many universities fell short in training learning technologies to faculty
members. Gautreau (2011) was adamant
that institutes need to provide a strong system of effective motivational
strategies for instructors' training in LMSs.
Gautreau's (2011) two research
questions asked the degree that demographics related to instructors'
motivations to implement an LMS and the rank of motivational elements as
instructors adopted LMSs.
The Research Purpose
Gautreau
(2011) indicated that his study's purpose was to demarcate motivational issues
related to concessions instructors accept prior to adopting LMSs. In addition, Gautreau's (2011) study's
intention was to review face-to-face and online instructors' demographics to
clarify and relate any motivational elements involved in initiating the use of
an LMS. Adding a study that consistently
identified the effects of motivational factors with demographics would replace
weaknesses in existing literature.
The Type of Design and Elements of
the Design
Gautreau
(2011) used the motivation hygiene theory (MHT) to influence the test
instrument's design, which evaluated two research questions using a needs
assessment. The MHTs underpinning
enabled the identification of motivators.
The first research question included studying demographical elements such
as "gender, age, tenure status, department, and years of experience using
an LMS" (Gautreau, 2011, p. 2).
The second research question explored the intrinsic and extrinsic
factors incurred by instructors. The
sample included 42 tenured and tenure track College of Communications' instructors
at a public California university (Gautreau, 2011). The operational construct was a
self-evaluation survey instrument. An
assessment of demographic information by a chi-square test of independence used
a five-point Likert scale ranging from "strongly agree…to strongly
disagree" (Gautreau, 2011, p. 10).
Details
Regarding Threats to Validity and How Resolved
While Gautreau (2011) did not
mention any threats to validity, there was an indication that the study's
sample of 42 instructors was small and sourced from only one university's
department, both of which could affect confidence. However, Gautreau (2011) did not resolve the
two aforementioned threats. Instead,
Gautreau (2011) noted that a future study could include an instructor
participant from more colleges and that the accuracy of data collection could
be amplified with the use of a survey. Gautreau's
(2011) conclusion that "tenure status, level of experience with an LMS,
and level of experience with computers" (p. 11) impacting an instructor's
willingness to use an LMS appears correct due to these three variables having
significance (p<0 .05=".05" i="i">).
Although other researchers investigated
several more factors that affect motivation in using an LMS, Gautreau (2011)
indicated that because the other studies addressed different factors thereby
causing "uniformity" (p. 10) issues, his study limited the number of factors
investigated. Gautreau (2011) addressed uniformity
issues by using random selection. Rather
than narrowing the study, Gautreau's (2011) study could have included research
elements presented by other researchers.
By including the other elements, Gautreau (2011) might have provided
stronger evidence to support his findings.
Findings from Research and
Implications
Gautreau's (2011) study found that
participants' age and gender did not impact the choice of selecting an
LMS. However, as noted above, an
instructor's "tenure status, level of experience with an LMS, and level of
experience with computers" (Gautreau, 2011, p. 11) did impact an
instructor's willingness to use an LMS.
Analysis of each of the three elements resulted in a significant
relationship (p<0 .05=".05" i="i">) to using an LMSs
(Gautreau, 2011).
Gautreau's (2011) first research
question asked if demographics affected motivation toward the use of an
LMS. Strangely, Gautreau (2011) noted
that untenured instructors chose to use e-tools to improve student learning but
did not mention results concerning tenured instructors. Gautreau's (2011) output table, which was not
well formatted, disclosed a sample of 28 men and 13 women and the participants
were 51% tenured and 49% untenured. Fifty-seven
per cent of the sample had more than five years of experience with an LMS, 31%
had two to five years, and 12% had fewer than two years.
While Gautreau (2011) wrote that his
study's data was consistent with others' research, which showed tenure status determined
the use of technology resources, he did not display any supportive data. For example, Gautreau's (2011) output table
showed 51% tenured and 49% untenured.
However, the table did not indicate the per cent of tenured and
untenured as this factor related to per cent of LMS experience. The output table's data should have
differentiated years of LMS experience between tenured and untenured.
Gautreau (2011) also confounded his
findings because years of experience with an LMS was not the same as a
determinant that technology resources would be used, which is futuristic. Due to the apparent problems with
Gautreau's (2011) analysis, his claim of
consistency was ungrounded and his data should be more transparent. Therefore, Gautreau (2011) did not support
his first research question.
Gautreau's (2011) second research
question addressed the ranked order of motivators associated with adopting an
LMS. Gautreau's (2011) study determined
that the ranked order of motivators from greatest to least was "salary,
responsibility, achievement, advancement, company policy and administration,
the work itself, and recognition" (p. 12). Gautreau (2011) made one suggestion for
increasing the degree of motivation for salary, responsibility, and achievement
but stopped after these motivators.
If Gautreau (2011) had suggestions
for increasing each of the motivators, the study would have greater
impact. Gautreau (2011) even noted that
all motivators should be considered relevant when he postulated that rankings
would "fluctuate depending upon several variables" (p. 15). Furthermore, Gautreau (2011) decided to
recommend that instructors' technological proficiencies be addressed by a
developmental program. Linking
proficiency to years of experience was not addressed, and the association was
unsupported by data or identified as a motivator.
A
Research Study on Users' Satisfaction
with E-Learning
Understanding
the critical elements of academically grounded research contributes to the
adoption and application of best practices.
In anticipation of teaching post-secondary online students in business
or education curricula, staying up-to-date on evolving learning technologies,
strategies, and applications requires expertise in evaluating peer-reviewed
literature. Consequently, a review of
research methodologies pertinent to the aforementioned specialization
follows.
The Research Problem, Questions, or
Hypotheses
Chen and Lin (2008) presented an analysis of users'
satisfaction with e-learning using a negative critical incidents approach. Ensuring that e-learning programs achieve the
targeted learning outcomes, the research by Chen and Lin (2008) investigated
supportive mechanisms for learner satisfaction. An association between frequency of negative
critical incidents (FNCI), attribute-specific cumulative satisfaction (ASCS),
and overall cumulative satisfaction (OCS) in the model used by Chen and Lin
(2008) was grounded in the expectancy disconfirmation theory.
The association noted above was
reflected by the researchers' three hypotheses, which were (1)
"attribute-specific cumulative satisfaction for e-learning is directly,
and negatively affected by the frequency of negative critical incidents in
e-learning" (Chen & Lin, 2008, p. 117), (2) "overall cumulative
satisfaction for e-learning is indirectly and negatively affected by the
frequency of negative critical incidents through attribute-specific cumulative
satisfaction with e-learning" (p. 117), and (3) "overall cumulative
satisfaction for e-learning is indirectly and negatively affected by the
frequency of negative critical incidents through attribute-specific cumulative
satisfaction with e-learning" (p. 117).
Chen and Lin (2008) anticipated that investigating the three hypotheses
would clarify learners' satisfaction levels.
The Research Purpose
The purpose of the study by Chen and
Lin (2008) sought to validate an e-learning satisfaction assessment model. Consequently, the research team chose the
Satisfaction Assessment from Frequency of e-Learning (SAFE) model. Specifically, SAFE measured "negative
critical incidents for e-learning" (Chen & Lin, 2008, p. 117).
The Type of Design and Elements of
the Design
The University of Taiwan was the study's
location. The results of a pilot study
involving 51 online students (67% male and 33% female) aided the research team
in improving an "anonymous questionnaire survey" (Chen & Lin,
2008, p. 118) prior to the main study.
The questionnaire evaluated students' opinions about a variety of functions
within the school's e-learning system. Two-hundred
and sixty-three online Master's students were required to undergo an
examination at the campus. The revised questionnaire
was distributed at the examination by the research team, and the team collected
240 completed questionnaires.
The questionnaire's seven-item
Likert scale included categories such as "administration, functionality,
instruction, and interaction" (Chen & Lin, 2008, p. 118). The assessment model, SAFE, was measured
using normed Chi-square, and "all fit-indices indicated that the model was
a good fit for e-learning" (Chen & Lin, 2008, p. 122). Constructs were administration and
functionality, and there were eight inter-constructs.
Validation of the model tested hypothesized
associations (Chen & Lin, 2008), and LISREL 8.3 software analyzed the
data. An overall mean cumulative learner
satisfaction was 5.68, which indicated that learners' satisfaction with
e-learning approaches ranged between satisfied and very satisfied (Chen &
Lin, 2008). The ASCS analysis showed
learners' satisfaction ranged between "no comment and satisfied"
(Chen & Lin, 2008, p. 122). The FNCI
analysis showed a range between "sometimes and often" (Chen &
Lin, 2008, p. 122).
Standardized regression coefficients
evaluated causal hypotheses, and showed significance at the 0.01 level (Chen
& Lin, 2008). Administration,
functionality, instruction, and interaction significantly impacted learner
satisfaction (Chen & Lin, 2008). Interaction
had the most impact, which meant that improving interactions would result in
the largest gain in overall learner satisfaction (Chen & Lin, 2008).
Details Regarding Threats to
Validity and How Resolved
An inspection checked the instrument
's composite reliability and construct validity (Chen & Lin, 2008). Due to the composite reliabilities being
above the suggested threshold of 0.6, and the confirmatory factor analysis of
the study's constructs above 0.6, convergent validity corroborated the measurement
model (Chen & Lin, 2008).
In addition, construct validity of
the "average variance extracted (AVE)" (Chen & Lin, 2008, p. 121)
was affirmed at the recommended exhibit estimate of 0.5. Administration and functionality ranged from
just below 0.5 and 0.9, and underwent further review (Chen & Lin, 2008). Correlations between construct pairs were
below the recommended 0.9 cutoff (Chen & Lin, 2008). Therefore, "distinctness in construct
content or discriminate validity" (Chen & Lin, 2008, p. 121) was
achieved. Chen and Lin (2008) produced a
research project that would compel peers to accept their findings due to the
reliability of the methodology used.
Findings from Research and
Implications
As noted above, the study results by
Chen and Lin (2008) disclosed that, "Inter-construct correlations were
below 0.9" (p. 121) and implied distinctness in both construct content and
discriminate validity. In this study, H1 was sustained because e-learning
satisfaction did have a direct and negative impact by the frequency of negative
critical e-learning incidents (Chen & Lin, 2008). Also, H2
and H3 were supported because
administration, functionality, instruction, and interaction had only indirect
impact on overall e-learner satisfaction (Chen & Lin, 2008).
Other findings included that the
success of e-learning programs depends upon sufficient reflection by
administration, a functioning e-learning system, and a course of action that
supports the "instructional process and interaction among participants and
the instructor" (Chen & Lin, 2008, p. 124). The study revealed other significant elements
impacting e-learner satisfaction, which included e-learner collaborations, the
discussion board technology and interactions, and limited office hours. Chen and Lin (2008) recommended that
instructors improve e-learner interactivity by creating curricula that enhances
communications. Employing assessment
models like SAFE that can assess positive and negative effects on learner
satisfaction rather than using models designed to only collect positive effects
affords researchers with more unbiased information (Chen & Lin, 2008). By using the SAFE model, which achieved 71%
explanatory power over 49% in models used by other researchers, a study's
results would more effectively support recommendations that improve e-learners'
satisfaction levels (Chen & Lin, 2008).
A Research Study on Learning in Technology-Mediated Distributed
Teams
Understanding the critical elements
of academically grounded research contributes to the adoption and application
of best practices. In anticipation of
teaching post-secondary online students in business or education curricula,
staying up-to-date on evolving learning technologies, strategies, and
applications requires expertise in evaluating peer-reviewed literature. Consequently, a review of research
methodologies pertinent to the aforementioned specialization follows.
The Research Problem, Questions, or
Hypotheses
Andres and Shipps (2010) conducted a
study to discover if learning could be improved by using e-tools that
facilitated project-based learning for
distributed teams. Research questions
included, "How does technology-mediated collaboration impact team
learning behaviors?" (Andres & Shipps, 2010, p. 213) and "Does
team learning involve both a technical and social process?" (p. 213). Andres and Shipps (2010) decided that using a
direct observation study approach could improve the capture of actual real-time
behaviors, and alleviate issues affected by the lack of participants to recall
information. Hypotheses determined by
Andres and Shipps (2010) included:
(a) Groups working in a face-to-face
collaboration setting should exhibit more effective team learning behaviors than in a technology-mediated
setting, (b) positive association exists
between team learning behaviors and team productivity, and (c) positive associations exist between team learning
behaviors and the quality of team interactions. (p. 215)
The Research Purpose
The
purpose of a study by Andres and Shipps (2010) was to contribute to current
research about the consequences of project-based team collaboration in a technology-mediated
learning environment. To identify the
consequences, an assessment was conducted of the roles that a team's learning
behaviors exhibited upon task outcomes. The study also meant to observe the associations between technology, learning,
and sociology in "technology-mediated distributed teams" (Andres &
Shipps, 2010, p. 213).
The Type of Design and Elements of
the Design
The research design by
Andres and Shipps (2010) used direct observation and employed an
"empirical interpretive research approach" (p. 215). The approach by Andres and Shipps (2010) helped
to, "Interpret, evaluate and rate observable manifested behaviors and
qualitative content associated with project-based team learning" (p.
215). Application of two learning
theories included the theory of affordances, and the social impact theory.
Andres
and Shipps (2010) posited that the two theories would be useful in creating a
model in which "collocated vs. non-collocated and videoconferencing
supported" learning might define the values associated with a learning
environment. Such values were believed
to include evolution of critical thinking, and collective methods that impact team-building
(Andres & Shipps, 2010). Trained
observation staff ranked "task-related and affect-related" (Andres &
Shipps, 2010, p. 213) dialogues between learners. The research team performed a pretest of the research
model and hypotheses, but no results were provided nor references made to any needed
modification.
Andres
and Shipps (2010) used a sample of 48 undergraduate students from a management
information systems (MIS) program.
Studies had shown that students at similar programming levels exhibited
similar abilities as professional programmers if the "problem domain (was)
well understood" (Andres & Shipps, 2010, p. 216). The skill sets of such learners in MIS work
with moderately complex programming.
Each participant received extra credit, and the team achieving the
highest level of productivity in each experiment was promised a small monetary
award. The participants' assignment,
which was to improve the performance of a hypothetical college's MIS
department, required partitioning into teams.
The teams' instructions included creating documentation for a software
design within two and one-half hours. Each
team received half of the assignment's instructions, and were to share collaboratively
with the other teams (Andres & Shipps, 2010).
Andres
and Shipps (2010) employed the behavioral observation approach to assess teams.
A relevant degree of training-the-observer instruction ensued with an emphasis
on fully comprehending the construct definitions and the applicable behavioral
indicators related to team learning (Andres & Shipps, 2010). Collection of the overall team ratings
occurred midway into the appointed assignment time, and just before ending the
sessions (Andres & Shipps, 2010). Literature reviewed by Andres & Shipps
(2010) resulted in a five-item rating scale, and use of a seven-point Likert
scale. Agreement index between raters
was very high.
Details Regarding Threats to
Validity and How Resolved
Andres and Shipps (2010) examined
"internal consistency reliability, convergent validity, and discriminant
validity of the construct measurements (and calculated) the construct’s
composite reliabilities (CR) and the average variance extracted (AVE)" (p.
217). Both constructs' reliability
scores were above the 0.70 benchmark.
The t-statistic loadings
demonstrated internal reliability and item convergent validity (Andres &
Shipps, 2010). The AVE square roots
confirmed discriminant validity via correlation between team learning and
"interaction quality latent variables" (Andres & Shipps, 2010, p.
217). Consequently, the
"measurement model displayed discriminant validity" (Andres &
Shipps, 2010, p. 217), and the agreement
index between raters was very high.
Andres and Shipps (2010) produced a research project that compels
peers to accept their findings due to the validity anchored in their
procedures, and the reliability of the methodology used.
Andres and Shipps (2010) made no mention of obtaining
approval through an Institutional Review Board (IRB) for their study. If approval was not sought and approved, the
study by Andres and Shipps (2010) would be non-compliant. Non-compliance also "compromises the
integrity and validity of the research" (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services,
2006, p. 5). More important than the loss
of potential contribution from the study would be the potential harm to the
participants caused by confidentiality issues and so forth. In addition, Andres and Shipps (2010) noted
that a payment and course credits were to be provided to participants. If IRB approval was not gained prior to the
study, such incentives could be construed as undue inducement (U.S. Department
of Health and Human Services, 2006). If
an IRB application was not done because the researchers believed that their
study was exempt cannot be assumed since there was no mention of an IRB.
Findings from Research and
Implications
The
results of the study by Andres and Shipps (2010) revealed that the "collaboration
mode can impact team information exchange…interpretation, and task outcomes"
(p. 213). In addition, the greater the success
of a team's collaboration, the more successful are the resulting social
structures, which achieves significant task outcomes (Andres & Shipps,
2010). A partial least squares (PLS)
analysis supported the hypotheses. As
collaboration increased team learning so did productivity and quality of the
teams' interactions. Apparently, working
on tasks face-to-face rather than through online collaboration resulted in
fewer problems with "communication breakdowns, misunderstandings, and
difficulty moving forward with task execution" (Andres & Shipps, 2010,
p. 219).
Andres
and Shipps (2010) reported a consensus that technology-mediated collaboration
included contexts of both technological and societal elements. Technological elements enable an execution of
procedural and technical tasks. Societal
elements allow for psychological task accomplishments. Therefore, both the technological and societal
elements provide the most impact for teams to participate, cooperate, and
reflect (Andres & Shipps, 2010).
A Research Study on Promotion of
Cross-Cultural Awareness in Preservice Instructors
Understanding the critical elements
of academically grounded research contributes to the adoption and application
of best practices. In anticipation of
teaching post-secondary online students in business or education curricula,
staying up-to-date on evolving learning technologies, strategies, and
applications requires expertise in evaluating peer-reviewed literature. Consequently, a review of research
methodologies pertinent to the aforementioned specialization follows.
The Research Problem, Questions, or
Hypotheses
Malewski,
Sharma, and Phillion (2012) presented a study using preservice instructors as a
means to examine endorsement of cross-cultural awareness. Research questions included
(1) "How do international field experiences prepare preservice teachers to teach in
diverse settings?, (2) What are the pedagogical implications of increased
cultural awareness among preservice teachers for classroom practice?, and (3) How
do international field experiences open preservice teachers to future
opportunities to explore and work in culturally diverse communities?" (Malewski,
Sharma, & Phillion, 2012, p. 1).
The Research Purpose
The research purpose noted by Malewski,
Sharma, and Phillion (2012) was to address important cross-cultural concerns
relative to preparing preservice teachers to practice in "culturally and
linguistically diverse classrooms" (p. 1).
Malewski et al. (2012) expected that the study would include an
international trip. Furthermore,
Malewski et al. (2012) wanted to document each participant's cross-cultural
connection with and awareness of cultural information.
The Type of Design and Elements of
the Design
Malewski, Sharma, and Phillion (2012) conducted their qualitative collective case
study using 49 preservice instructors from an American university who were
participating in a Honduran field experience, which placed them in rural and urban
school systems. Sample
demographics included 37 females and 12 males who were 97% white and 3%
biracial. Only 3.5% spoke Spanish
fluently or with limited skill. Data was gathered from "questionnaires, interviews,
focus interviews, course assignments, discussions, journal reflections, and
researchers’ observations and field notes" (Malewski, Sharma, &
Phillion, 2012, p. 2). Multiple data
sources required triangulation in order to ensure accuracy and reliability
before preparing and disclosing the study's findings. Participants were given instructions to use
"reflective journaling, autobiographical writing, teacher
portraits, and critical analysis of pedagogical issues" (Malewski et al.,
2012, p. 5).
Malewski,
Sharma, and Phillion (2012) focused their study's design upon a previous
researcher's work that explored the efficacy of a collective case research
structure. The structure included (a) an
extraordinary singular experience that required a collective investigation of a
"group of persons, places, events, issues, or problems" (Malewski,
Sharma, & Phillion, 2012, p. 11), (b) an investigation taking place at the
location of the experience, (c) a collection of extensive content-rich
information from various data sources, (d) the replication of results across
cases, and (e) an emphasis on the differences within and between cases at any
possible opportunity. Interviews with
the participants before and after the trip assessed their knowledge of culture,
principles, and personal outlooks, which provided a picture of each participant's
experiential learning.
Several
themes materialized demonstrating mounting awareness about the impact of language
on attempts to grasp other cultures. For
example, themes arose about the relevance of economic conditions' effects on a
culture's ability to provide education to its people and the impact upon
pedagogical comprehension related to differing degrees of understanding about
cultures. Other themes recognized the
value for preservice teachers to receive exposure to other cultures and the
importance that other cultures play in understanding one's own cultural
viewpoints (Malewski, Sharma, & Phillion, 2012).
Details Regarding Threats to
Validity and How Resolved
Malewski,
Sharma and Phillion (2012) completed a study that reviewed data from a singular
location, and indicated that their study added a significant resource for
educators despite the one area examined.
Rather than Malewskis et al.'s (2012) study providing scientific support
for the advancement of academic knowledge, their study claimed a contribution
based upon other researchers' work.
Malewski et al. (2012) appeared to claim study significance because of their
first-of-its-kind study. Uniqueness does
not qualify validity. The study by
Malewski et al. (2012) may help peers, but the study was uncompelling due to
the issues noted above.
Malewski,
Sharma, and Phillion (2012) explained that their study revealed themes as noted
above, which signified a collective case.
However, the study did not address atypical cases. Researchers who objectively or subjectively
discount cases not fitting a research parameter may substantially discredit or
eliminate data that would otherwise reveal important information such as from
atypical cases.
In
addition, researchers must be very wary of personal opinions affecting their
data analysis. Compromising research
validity occurs if researchers' inductive processes incorrectly eliminates
opportunities to discover good or bad findings.
Once peers review research, and detect that possible useful data was not
included in a study, the study's researchers may elicit a future wherein few pay
attention. Adhering to scientific
methods eliminates such problems.
Findings
from Research and Implications
Conclusions by Malewski,
Sharma, and Phillion (2012) indicated that, "Experiential learning in an international setting was key to developing
preservice teachers’ cross-cultural awareness" (p. 2). Expanding cultural awareness provides
preservice teachers with an otherwise unobtainable understanding and an ability
to successfully instruct culturally diverse learners (Malewski, Sharma, &
Phillion, 2012). Sensitivity to others'
cultures enables preservice instructors with opportunities to form skills in
negotiating, interpreting, and participating with people, which enables such skills
to more effectively instruct learners.
Malewski,
Sharma, and Phillion (2012) indicated that preservice students challenged the
"omissions, biases, and inclusions that form an ability to conceive of
cultural manifestations" (p. 35), which includes "assumptions,
values, beliefs, and attitudes" (p. 35).
Cross-cultural awareness expands when learners actively interact with
content and cultural information. In
addition, expertise of culturally diverse learners increases due to exposure to
theories and applications (Malewski, Sharma, & Phillion, 2012). Apparently, other researchers have not
addressed the advantages of engaging with other cultures as a means to increase
preservice teachers' cross-cultural awareness.
Consequently, the study by Malewski et al. (2012) advances knowledge
that improves educational programs for teaching students. Supporting international field experiences provides
preservice teachers with experience and cross-cultural skills for teaching
diverse students (Malewski et al., 2012).
Such skills tremendously impact better learning outcomes as preservice
teachers begin practicing instruction of widely diverse students.
A Compelling Case Related to the Significance of Findings
This
section redesigns the DBR methodology presented by Bower (2011) above. Educators must be extremely cognizant of the
methods used in academic research because instructional practices based on
faulty, incomplete, or less than ideal research methods can be extremely detrimental
to learning outcomes. For example, Akilli
(2008) wrote that "many DBR studies lack a sound theoretical foundation,
and do not add to the literature to refine and develop the theory" (p. 3). Some DBR researchers target a solution, and pursue
learning issues that pertain to the solution, which often causes
"under-conceptualized research" (Akilli, 2008, p. 3). Barab and Squire (2004) remarked that rather
than identifying hypotheses, DBR
looks at "multiple aspects of the design, and develops a profile that
characterizes the design in practice" (p. 4). However, Akilli (2008) noted
that DBR researchers have used mixed methods to assess interventions' outcomes,
and revised interventions accordingly.
Mixed
methods warrants "objectivity, validity, credibility, and applicability of
the findings" (Akilli, 2008, p. 3) due to measurements between data. Bower (2011) focused upon "characterizing situations (as
opposed to controlling variables) (and) developing a profile or theory that
characterizes the design in practice (as opposed to simply testing
hypotheses)" (Barab & Squire, 2004, p. 3). Rather than considering a DBR design, and
implementation of instructional tools based only upon Bower's (2011) theory, DBR
is merged with a mixed methods approach.
The mixed method will positively impact the integrity of the new design because
extending its scope will overcome the "minimal ontology" (Barab &
Squire, 2004, p. 5) that DBR investigations typically represent. Reduced doubt concerning reliability issues,
and increased confidence provides the researcher with more assurance in
offering the upgraded study to peers.
The
Research Problem, Questions, or Hypotheses
Although
distance education and e-learning environments began decades ago, and
technologies for online learning are vast, paradigms for best practices used in
andragogical learning continue to shift without the benefit of sound research
(Skylar, 2009). Researchers have posited
that improved learning outcomes might be achieved by synchronous and
asynchronous web conferencing (Bower, 2011).
However, scientific evidence prevails over theory (Skylar, 2009). Barab and Squire (2004) wrote that convincing
others that recommendations based upon DBR are trustworthy, valid, and reliable
is achievable by applying a qualitative research method. Scientific research augments current theories
regarding the benefit of web conferencing for e-learners. By converging DBR with a qualitative research
method, assertions are supportable, and limitations dramatically reduced. The research questions include (1) Does
synchronous and asynchronous web conferencing affect e-learners' performance?,
and (2) Does synchronous and asynchronous web conferencing affect e-learners'
satisfaction? The study's four hypotheses
are:
H1: Employing
web conferencing in a synchronous e-learning environment improves learning performance.
H2: Employing web conferencing in an asynchronous
e-learning environment improves learning
performance.
H3: Employing web conferencing in a synchronous e-learning
environment increases learners'
satisfaction.
H4: Employing web conferencing in an asynchronous
e-learning environment increases learners'
satisfaction.
The
Research Purpose
The purpose of the mixed methods
research project is to determine if, during synchronous and asynchronous web
conferencing, learners' performance and satisfaction does or does not
improve. Literature revealed that many DBR
researchers have disregarded electing a mixed methods research design. This project provides an opportunity for DBR
researchers to examine the research methods discussed below, which unlike the DBR
method, supports "objectivity, validity, credibility, and applicability of
the findings" (Akilli, 2008, p. 3) due to data convergence.
The Type of Design and Elements of
the Design
Intra-method
mixing using concurrent analysis of the qualitative data from questionnaires
and interviewing ensures data convergence (Akilli, 2008). Ninety online students from an undergraduate
marketing class at three state-administered universities in Syracuse, New York,
represent the study's sample. The design
of four six-week classes running concurrently are designated as Class One and
Class Two. Fifteen students participate from
each university alternating one time between both classes. Classes consist of a synchronous web conferencing
learning platform, and an asynchronous web conferencing learning platform. Examining data from the two classes should
demonstrate performance and satisfaction related to each learning scenario if
the pretest and posttest data is compared separately for participant learners
and researchers.
An
IRB application is to be submitted at the researcher's university, which is one
of the three state-run universities noted above before any contact is made with
the participants. Two research peers from
the other two universities are contributing members of the research team. All participants will be advised about the
study's parameters after the IRB is approved.
All
students are registered, and log into the portal for both online courses at the
appropriate time. The management
information services department who maintains the server for the three colleges
and the research team pretest the two courses.
The asynchronous class uses a WebCT course management system to collect
data from a pretest and posttest using Scantron technologies to score (a) learners'
and researcher participants' proficiencies, and (b) an end-of-class student
satisfaction survey that uses open and closed questions. The synchronous class uses the Elluminate
Live course management system. The
research team also conducts an Elluminate Live pretest to assess students' proficiencies, and each student
undergoes a posttest and satisfaction survey.
The
research team is to assess and code the survey's open-ended questions. Thirty per cent of the tests will be randomly
chosen and manually scored to ensure the reliability of the scores. Scores
from the two learning environments' pretest will be compared to posttest scores
to assess changes in proficiency of the participant learners and
researchers. The scores from the
satisfaction survey will compare the learners' levels of approval. IBMs SPSS software was chosen to run all data
for the concurrent analysis.
The
study's procedures will provide a repetitive series of "theory-based
analysis, design, and testing" (Bower, 2011, p. 67). The "naturalistic contexts" (Luo,
2011, p. 5) extracted from the study triangulates the DBR information with the formative
evaluative qualitative data potentially resulting in a new learning model. Capturing the operational variables from the
data collected in both classes, and from the participant researchers provides
an effect range between the students' and researchers' competencies. Multiple dependent variables include "climate variables (e.g.,
collaboration among learners, available resources), outcome variables (e.g.,
learning of content, transfer), and system variables (e.g., dissemination,
sustainability)" (Barab & Squire, 2004, p. 4).
Amiel and Reeves
(2008) wrote that design-based research in combination with qualitative
research produces "evidence-based outcomes" (p. 37) because the
convergence results in engaged research.
Therefore, engaged research produces evidence-based outcomes. Answering the research questions will be
possible because analysis of the data described above provides an ability to
accept or not accept each hypothesis.
Luo
(2011) wrote that "relevant and quality research on educational technology
must do more than simply present empirical findings on how well a technology
application worked, but should also be able to interpret why it worked"
(p. 3). Achieving a contribution to
learning is possible due to (a) a much more robust research methodology than
DBR alone because a mixed methods research design will be employed, (b) designing
assessments to provide the research team with the reasons that each learning
platform was beneficial to learning and satisfaction (process to outcome
analysis), (c) the research methodology supporting the validity of the findings,
and (d) data interpretations that will focus upon explaining why the
synchronous and asynchronous LMSs improved or did not improve proficienies. In addition, data from both classes will
support recommendations to improve learning, instructor training, and
satisfaction.
Conclusion
The essay prepared above presented two
sections. The first section examined
empirical research methodologies as well as the conclusions presented by
scholarly researchers. The second section presented a design to converge the
qualitative research method with DBR, which was discussed by Bower (2011). Analyzing the research methods in the first
section, and designing a research project in the second section provided an
opportunity to apply new research information.
The analyses improved upon research skills required for future projects,
and a more developed ability to evaluate best practices before implementing
them into instructional strategies.
References:
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technology: Rethinking
technology and the research agenda. Educational Technology & Society,
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