Sampling and Sample Size
As a research advisor to Dr. Thompson who plans to conduct a simple experiment to test the effectiveness of concept maps for his population, it is critical to understand the correct target for his study, and to conceptualize a good sampling plan, which is presented later in this paper. Dr. Thompson's research idea is to statistically test whether concept mapping would aid freshman students in raising scores obtained after completing the fifth learning activity. Although Dr. Thompson identifies six learning activities, he is specifically interested in determining if the fifth activity's remedial scores can be improved by using concept mapping. Consequently, only the fifth activity learning results will be examined. Dr. Thompson additionally desires to use a two sample independent t-test for his experiment.
Choudhery (2009) reminds the researcher to identify the null and alternate hypotheses first. Dr. Thompson's hypotheses could be represented by:
H0: μ(Group 1: Fifth Activity Scores of Trained) = μ(Group 2: Fifth Activity Scores of Untrained) meaning that the scores of the concept mapping trained students after the fifth activity are equal to the scores of the untrained students after the fifth activity.
H1: μ(Group 1: Fifth Activity Scores of Concept Mapping Trained) ≠ μ(Group 2: Fifth Activity Scores of Untrained).
As an advisor to Dr. Thompson, it is also important to review the information relevant to concept mapping so that understanding and agreement is reached on Dr. Thompson's theory, which is that concept mapping could improve remedial scores. Novak and Cañas (2009) explained that concept mapping enables students to learn structurally as they identify new concepts "in a hierarchical fashion with the most inclusive, most general concepts at the top of the map and the more specific, less general concepts arranged hierarchically below" (para 2). Concept mapping also includes cross-links to other concepts, and reveals a relationship (creative leap) from one unit of knowledge to another. Concept mapping was found to facilitate "meaningful learning and the creation of powerful knowledge frameworks that not only permit utilization of the knowledge in new contexts, but also the retention of the knowledge for long periods of time" (Novak & Cañas, 2009, para 18). Based upon this information, agreement that concept mapping could improve learning, and that remedial scores may increase, could occur between the advisor and Dr. Thompson.
To agree with Dr. Thompson's desire to use his stated statistical test, a review of information by Choudhery (2009) verifies the test's applicability. Choudhery (2009) wrote that "the independent two-sample t-test is used to test whether population means are significantly different from each other, using the means from randomly drawn samples" (para 1). Although Choudhery (2009) recommended using the z-test for sample sizes greater than 30 (our sample size stated later is 65 for each group), the factorial designed independent two-sample t-test is the test of choice.
Sampling Plan
Westat (2000) wrote that "there are two methods for randomly selecting a sample of
members…the simple random sampling method selects members from a list of all members. The systematic sampling method useful for sampling historical records selects members based on a sampling rate, such as, every fifth freshman student undergoing the six learning activities" (p. 9). Based on the above information, the plan includes the recommendation to use the simple random sampling method.
Simple Random Probability Sampling Method.
Of the approximately 150 students who have scores at the remedial level, and who are
proceeding through the six learning activities, two groups of 65 are required for the test based upon the G*power test's result (below), and Cohen's (1992) guidelines (below). One-hundred and thirty members of the population would be randomly selected prior to training. Consequently, of the 130 members, 65 would be randomly chosen to be trained in concept mapping. The other 65 members would not be trained.
After the results of the questionnaire (see the moderating variable section below) are tallied, and final sample sizes confirmed, a simple random process would be used. All of the approximately 150 students' names would be listed, and assigned a number. The researcher would then select at random 65 numbers for Group 1, and 65 numbers for Group 2. Systematic sampling is not preferred because the process although often used can violate randomness since an equal chance of being selected is not possible (Salkind, 2009). Furthermore, stratified sampling is not recommended because the experiment does not use subgroups, e.g., based upon age or gender, and, therefore, layers in the population are not being tested (Salkind, 2009).
Errors in Sampling.
Errors in choosing the samples would be minimized because of the questionnaire's
utility in eliminating any interacting variables, which would also minimize diversity within the samples. The samples would be representative of the population. Using a sample size of 65 is recommended by the G*power analysis, is conducive to reducing errors because of its larger size, and because extraneous variables as noted below are not part of the experiment, which greatly minimizes differences between the two samples (Salkind, 2009).
Extraneous Variables.
The extraneous variables that could be tested, and could, therefore, be related
to the dependent or independent variables (Salkind, 2009) but are not related to Dr.
Thompson's experiment include gender, remedial score results in reading, two other high schools, and age. Although Dr. Thompson had noted that he has (1) more data,
(2) made observations about the difference in learning processes between males and females, (3) noted that the gender of the students is almost exactly the same as the portion of males and females in the freshman class, (4) knowledge that the college has a strong nontraditional student following, and so forth, this detail is not being examined according to Dr. Thompson's hypotheses.
Moderating Variables.
Consideration of the moderating (interacting) variables, which are related to the dependent or independent variables, and could have an impact on the dependent variables (Salkind, 2009) (the fifth activity “attacking word problems" and fifth activity test scores), could include that (1) not all trained students obtain the exact same or quality level of skill in concept mapping (scores after the fifth activity are relatively not as good as expected), (2) some of the untrained sample had previous knowledge of concept mapping, (3) some of both samples had previously undergone the fifth activity and were repeating the activity, and (4) a large variance in the pre-training remedial scores could offset the test results unless sampling is carefully designed.
Sample Size
Available population is about 150; recommend using 65 for Group A (trained in concept mapping), and 65 for Group B (untrained in concept mapping). Both groups will complete and be tested on Activity 5.
Independent Variables
Concept Mapping Trained: Group A, Untrained: Group B
Dependent Variables
Fifth Activity “attacking word problems", and Test Scores of Fifth Activity
Other Information Needing to be Collected for Sampling Plan Development
The recommendation for further data collection includes that the members of the two
populations complete questionnaires prior to the beginning the fifth activity. (Future testing of the usefulness of concept mapping in improving scores in all five activities would require training a sample before the activities begin.) The questionnaire would serve to factor out the effects of the moderating variables on the experiment's results. For example, students that received concept mapping training prior to college admittance would be eliminated from the experiment because (1) if a student is assigned to the sample of untrained members, and had received concept mapping training, this student's scores would bias the experiement's results, and (2) the concept mapping training given to the experiment's sample may be incongruent with the training students had received in the past, and would bias the experiment's results. The questionnaire would also aid in removing any restricting (control) variables. Once the questionnaire's results are examined and recorded, the sample sizes may need to be lowered because the above restricting variables may cause elimination of some of the sample's members.
Other information that would be very useful for Dr. Thompson to consider is that since the experiment will invest a certain amount of time, training in concept mapping, and data collection, conducting the experiment for each of the five activities, rather than just one, may help to improve learning in each activity. Dr. Thompson could also consider adding layers to the experiment so that gender differences are examined. For example, Dr. Thompson had noted that the gender of students was almost the same proportion of gender of those in the freshman class, and examining a gender subgroup that is almost the same would provide good testing validity. Considering subgroups arriving from different high schools, and/or subgroups of different ages could also be insightful for Dr. Thompson's experiment. For example, such an experiment could show that students have higher scores when coming from a specific high school, or that older students test higher in the initial remedial tests (or in activities) because older students bring more experential knowledge to the table. Consequently, before recommending a sample plan to Dr. Thompson, other considerations could be reviewed because a more complex experiment could gain more useful knowledge.
Using the G*power website, calculate the sample size that will provide an appropriate level of power and appropriate effect size for your research. Briefly discuss the outcome of that power analysis.
I had determined I wanted to use 64 in Group A (untrained), and 64 in Group B (trained in concept mapping) according to Conrad's (1992) guidelines, which explained that "to detect a medium difference between two independent sample means (d= .50) at a = .05 requires N = 64 in each group" (p. 158). The available population is about 150; therefore, the recommendation to Dr. Thompson (prior to using G*Power) would be to use 64 for Group A (not trained), and 64 for Group B (trained in concept mapping). This group size was verified after downloading the
newer version of G*Power 3.1.3, and using the a priori power analysis for a t test for the difference between two independent means, which calculated the sample size at 65 for each group. The calculation also included an Actual power (1-β err prob) = .916, and an Effect Size (ES) d = 0.5. The new recommended groups' size is 65.
As noted above, the calculation also included an Actual power (1-β err prob) = .916, and an Effect Size (ES) d = 0.5. Since there is a 92% chance of obtaining a statistically significant result from the study by using the sample size obtained, I would recommend that the study proceed because there is a high probability that the study will reject the null hypothesis because it is false. Since the power is very high, the chances of committing Type I (declaring a difference that does not exist) or Type II (concluding there is no effect when, in fact, there is one) errors is very small.
Regarding the Effect Size (ES) d = 0.5, the larger the number, the more effective the experimental treatment: generally an effect size in the .20's would show a treatment that produced a relatively small effect, and an effect size in the .80s would indicate a powerful treatment. The a priori indicated 0.5 so it appears the test using the sample size of 65 would be somewhat powerful.
Heinrich Heine Universitat Dusseldorf (2012) explained that the "sample size N is computed as a function of the required power level (1-β), the pre-specified significance level α, and the population effect size to be detected with probability (1-β)" (para 1). The a priori analyses offers an efficient procedure or "controlling controlling statistical power before a study is actually conducted, and can be recommended whenever resources such as time and money required for data collection are not critical" (Heinrich Heine Universitat Dusseldorf, 2012, para 2). According to the information provided, which did not disclose any issues with resources, the power analyses would be useful for Dr. Thompson's study especially due to its results suggesting the same size of each group being similar to Cohen's (1992) recommendation.
References:
Arsham, H. (2012). Statistical thinking for managerial decisions, 9th ed. Retrieved from http://home.ubalt.edu/ntsbarsh/stat-data/Javastat.htm
Choudhury, A. (2009). Independent two sample t-test. Retrieved from http://www.experiment-resources.com/independent-two-sample-t-test.html#ixzz1klACqyoM
Cohen, J. (1992). A power primer. Psychological Bulletin, 112 (9), 155-159. Retrieved from http://classes.deonandan.com/hss4303/2010/cohen%201992%20sample%20size.pdf
Heinrich Heine Universitat Dusseldorf. (2012). A priori power analyses. Retrieved from http://www.psycho.uni-duesseldorf.de/abteilungen/aap/gpower3/
Novak, J.D., & Cañas, A.J. (2008). The theory underlying concept maps and how to construct and use them. Retrieved from http://cmap.ihmc.us/publications/researchpapers/ theorycmaps/theoryunderlyingconceptmaps.htm
Salkind, N. (2009). Exploring research, 7th ed. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Education Ltd.
Westat. (2000). Performance outcomes measures project for the administration on aging. Implementation guide: General sampling plan. Retrieved from
http://www.aoapomp.net/pompI/smp_plan.pdf
Sunday, January 29, 2012
The Role of Reflection in Online Learning
Abstract
Investigating research that appraises the use of reflection in individual and collaborative learning activities must be accepted as the equal responsibility of universities, instructors, and learners. Although strategies that integrate the use of reflection into an online course's activities have been devised for instructors to use, empowering students to self-direct learning is only slowly emerging. Self-directing learning embraced by reflective methods is shown to not only improve academic performance but additionally promises synchronization between people by enabling ownership in collaborative skill development.
Reflection
When conflict creates ambiguity, a reflective intellectual can move toward reducing ambiguity by considering alternative perspectives instead of depending upon personal experience and assumptions (Sinclair, 2009). This paper discusses the function of reflection in online learning, and the strategies usable by instructors (and universities) to support reflection practices by learners. As new teaching paradigms identify innovative best practices, sustaining collaboration to achieve new learning objectives overtakes previous teaching methods. Consequently, using reflective methods to support collaboration between online students presented herein moves into a dominant position as students delve into learning course concepts.
The Role of Reflection in Promoting Learning in an Online Course
Palloff and Pratt (2007) indicated that transformative learning exercises reflection by encouraging learners (and instructors) to "reframe and reinterpret" (p. 201) new learning. Specifically, transformative learning as noted by Wallace (n.d.) encourages a "personal understanding of issues or beliefs…by…assessing the evidence and arguments of a point of view or issue…then reflecting critically on the new information, and making a personal judgment based on a new assessment of the information" (para 12). As transformative learning and reflection prompts learners to "explore beyond the confines of the course material" (Palloff and Pratt, 2007, p. 202), learners experience improved self-esteem and engagement. Furthermore, reflection via transformative learning offers instructors the opportunity to question their personal and professional teaching assumptions, and guides instructors as they visualize better learning paradigms (Palloff and Pratt, 2007).
Brandes and Boskic (2008) wrote that as students' technological skills improve, their "ePortfolios are richer and more complex in the ways in which they illustrate learning. Metaphors and hypertexts become useful vehicles to move away from linearity and chronology towards new organizational modes that better illustrate students’ cognitive processes" (Brandes and Boskic, 2008, p. 14). As an online community of inquiry expands, an instructor's and students' peer roles in enhancing reflection expands.
Brandes and Boskic (2008) also reported that varying degrees of reflection are represented in different learning stages exhibited when a learner moves "from noticing, to making sense, to making meaning and working with meaning and transformative learning" (p. 3). As learners develop a more "holistic view of what is learned…(they) link ideas to other ideas, construct relationships with prior knowledge, and provide evidence of restructuring ideas and evaluating the learning process" (Brandes and Boskic, 2008, p. 3). When constructing and reviewing an ePortfolio, the varying learning stages provide the scaffold to move into deeper learning. The instructor's role as learners work on their ePortfolios is to support reflection, and guide learners in analyzing and reporting new knowledge.
Strategies Used by Instructors to Promote the Reflective Process in an Online Course
Stine (2009) noted that an online class' discussion forum has the "capacity to expand, enhance, and elevate the level of students’ reflection on course content and on their own cognitive style…(as well as supports) composition instruction, active learning, and community building" (p. 46). Due to the potential positive effects derived from a discussion forum as shown by much research, universities and instructors should not delay in assessing and using the most sophisticated software to support an online forum presence. For example, McBrien, Jones, and Cheng (2009) found that when using "Elluminate Live!" (p. 1), an online software program, certain "themes emerged related to dialogue, structure, and (reducing) learner autonomy…(and) students rated convenience, technical issues, and pedagogical preferences as important elements in their learning experiences" (p. 1). Consequently, if learning's purpose is to improve a society, support a globally and unharmful competitive advancement, and protect the earth's environmental system, investing in more sophisticated and relevant discussion forum software would not be wasted.
Palloff and Pratt (2005) recommended that instructors integrate learner-centered assessment tools in online learning that includes reflective elements in both individual and collaborative activities. By empowering students to reflect upon their learning outcomes, instructors obtain valuable "formative and summative" (Palloff and Pratt, 2005, p. 43)student-generated information useable for tweaking future teaching objectives. Such information should also be distributed to other pertinent university staff who are responsible for designing online learning modules.
The rationale for such a recommendation is not only that others in addition to the instructor can affect new paradigms for improved teaching but also that student feedback provided by end-of-course surveys frequently limits the ability for students to offer deep reflection. Use of online portfolios by students and collaborative groups enables students to showcase work, and aids the instructor and others in assessing students' contributions and degree of learning (Palloff and Pratt, 2005). Instructors may (1) invite learners to supply sample test questions for future development of assessment tools, and (2) direct collaborative groups to design and submit guidelines to the instructor early in the course that will demonstrate the group's competence (Palloff and Pratt, 2007). When students are engaged in their own learning, learning becomes more meaningful and motivational.
A study by Brandes and Boskic (2008) found that learners invited instructors to examine the "individual and the social construction of knowledge"(p. 8). Brandes and Boskic (2008) reported that when instructors offered various "venues for reflection through analytical examinations of exemplars of ePortfolios, discussions of choices of tools, as well as opening spaces for explorations of new ideas and media" (p. 15), the positive effects of reflection expanded exponentially. When instructors become willing to creatively provide e-tools, learners become empowered to direct self-learning.
Methods Employed by Students to Collaboratively Reflect on Course Concepts
Stine (2006) wrote that learners using online journals to reflect upon past and current knowledge can then project their thoughts using a blog or discussion post, review comments received, and then reach further to online resources that will contribute to deeper understanding. As the collaborative element of reflection enables a learner group to share problems, and an opportunity to discuss "very real and often complex issues" (Stine, 2009, p. 205), new and deeper understanding is realized individually. Advising that a group's feedback should offer "both explanation and provocation" (Stine, 2009, p. 205), discussions will be more "intellectually substantive and demanding" (p. 205).
Palloff and Pratt (2005) wrote that collaborating learners have far more opportunities to collect information about other group members. As the information is compounded by time, group members learn of other group members' strengths and weaknesses. If the learners have had the opportunity to appreciate group dynamics, members can positively impact the evolution of weaknesses into strengths. However, all learners should first be cognizant of methods employed for assessing others. The teaching institute and instructor should not only ensure that such methods are communicated to learners but that learners have learned, and are properly utilizing processes for reflection and assessment of peers. Learners should think profoundly about writing notes to others especially how others may perceive the notes as well as making certain their notes are professional and non-inflamatory.
The study by Brandes and Boskic (2008) found that learners' "discussions, reflections, and summaries in ePortfolios…were woven with one organizing theme" (p. 11). Brandes and Boskic (2008) first found that initially learners' "ePortfolios were organized by the required elements…including the rationale, assessment rubric, teaching philosophy, courses, electives, and reflections" (p. 12). However, later in the study, Brandes and Boskic (2008) found that learners' ePortfolios provided "a tool and structure for students to document events, research, ideas, reflect, and analyze these ideas, use the analysis to inform the next steps, and then share their ideas with others" (p. 12).
Geer (2000) wrote that "using collaorative learning approaches can enable internet-based learning to be as effective as the traditional classroom where collaborative learning is a common feature" (p. 2425). Such learning approaches should provide elements of interactivity, which enables "powerful interactions between students (that) can lead to higher order thinking, hypothesis formation and reflection" (Geer, 2000, p. 2425). Collaborative interactivity, which combines collaboration between learners of assigned and self-directed tasks, and involves a "rich discursive interaction, is…an essential component for providing a richer learning experience" (Geer, 2000, p. 2425).
Conclusion
This paper discussed the functions of reflection in online learning, and the strategies usable by instructors (and universities) to support reflection practices for learners. As presented above, new teaching paradigms have identified reflection as an innovative best practice. Sustaining collaboration to achieve new learning objectives has overtaken previously supported teaching methods. As universities and instructors implement reflective methods to support collaboration between students, today's online students can experience very powerful learning opportunities if they choose to do so.
References:
Brandes, G.M., & Boskic, N. (2008, June). Eportfolios: From description to analysis. International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 9(2), 1-17. Retrieved from ERIC.
Geer, R. (2000). Drivers for successful student learning through collaborative interactivity in internet based courses. Retrieved from ERIC.
McBrien, J.L., Jones, P., & Cheng, R. (2009, June). Virtual spaces: Employing a synchronous online classroom to facilitate student engagement in online learning. International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 10(3), 1-17. Retrieved from ERIC.
Palloff, R.M., and Pratt, K. (2005). Collaborating online: Learning together in community. San Francisco, California: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Palloff, R.M., and Pratt, K. (2007). Building online learning communities: Effective strategies for the virtual classroom. San Francisco, California: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Sinclair, A. (2009). Provocative pedagogies in e-learning: Making the invisible visible. International Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education, 21(2), 197-212. Retrieved from ERIC.
Stine, L.J. (2010, Spring). Teaching basic writing in a web-enhanced environment. Journal of Basic Writing, 29(1), 33-55. Retrieved from ERIC.
Wallace, S. (n.d.). Core principles of transformative learning theory - Mezirow & others. Retrieved from http://transformativelearningtheory.com/corePrinciples.html
Investigating research that appraises the use of reflection in individual and collaborative learning activities must be accepted as the equal responsibility of universities, instructors, and learners. Although strategies that integrate the use of reflection into an online course's activities have been devised for instructors to use, empowering students to self-direct learning is only slowly emerging. Self-directing learning embraced by reflective methods is shown to not only improve academic performance but additionally promises synchronization between people by enabling ownership in collaborative skill development.
Reflection
When conflict creates ambiguity, a reflective intellectual can move toward reducing ambiguity by considering alternative perspectives instead of depending upon personal experience and assumptions (Sinclair, 2009). This paper discusses the function of reflection in online learning, and the strategies usable by instructors (and universities) to support reflection practices by learners. As new teaching paradigms identify innovative best practices, sustaining collaboration to achieve new learning objectives overtakes previous teaching methods. Consequently, using reflective methods to support collaboration between online students presented herein moves into a dominant position as students delve into learning course concepts.
The Role of Reflection in Promoting Learning in an Online Course
Palloff and Pratt (2007) indicated that transformative learning exercises reflection by encouraging learners (and instructors) to "reframe and reinterpret" (p. 201) new learning. Specifically, transformative learning as noted by Wallace (n.d.) encourages a "personal understanding of issues or beliefs…by…assessing the evidence and arguments of a point of view or issue…then reflecting critically on the new information, and making a personal judgment based on a new assessment of the information" (para 12). As transformative learning and reflection prompts learners to "explore beyond the confines of the course material" (Palloff and Pratt, 2007, p. 202), learners experience improved self-esteem and engagement. Furthermore, reflection via transformative learning offers instructors the opportunity to question their personal and professional teaching assumptions, and guides instructors as they visualize better learning paradigms (Palloff and Pratt, 2007).
Brandes and Boskic (2008) wrote that as students' technological skills improve, their "ePortfolios are richer and more complex in the ways in which they illustrate learning. Metaphors and hypertexts become useful vehicles to move away from linearity and chronology towards new organizational modes that better illustrate students’ cognitive processes" (Brandes and Boskic, 2008, p. 14). As an online community of inquiry expands, an instructor's and students' peer roles in enhancing reflection expands.
Brandes and Boskic (2008) also reported that varying degrees of reflection are represented in different learning stages exhibited when a learner moves "from noticing, to making sense, to making meaning and working with meaning and transformative learning" (p. 3). As learners develop a more "holistic view of what is learned…(they) link ideas to other ideas, construct relationships with prior knowledge, and provide evidence of restructuring ideas and evaluating the learning process" (Brandes and Boskic, 2008, p. 3). When constructing and reviewing an ePortfolio, the varying learning stages provide the scaffold to move into deeper learning. The instructor's role as learners work on their ePortfolios is to support reflection, and guide learners in analyzing and reporting new knowledge.
Strategies Used by Instructors to Promote the Reflective Process in an Online Course
Stine (2009) noted that an online class' discussion forum has the "capacity to expand, enhance, and elevate the level of students’ reflection on course content and on their own cognitive style…(as well as supports) composition instruction, active learning, and community building" (p. 46). Due to the potential positive effects derived from a discussion forum as shown by much research, universities and instructors should not delay in assessing and using the most sophisticated software to support an online forum presence. For example, McBrien, Jones, and Cheng (2009) found that when using "Elluminate Live!" (p. 1), an online software program, certain "themes emerged related to dialogue, structure, and (reducing) learner autonomy…(and) students rated convenience, technical issues, and pedagogical preferences as important elements in their learning experiences" (p. 1). Consequently, if learning's purpose is to improve a society, support a globally and unharmful competitive advancement, and protect the earth's environmental system, investing in more sophisticated and relevant discussion forum software would not be wasted.
Palloff and Pratt (2005) recommended that instructors integrate learner-centered assessment tools in online learning that includes reflective elements in both individual and collaborative activities. By empowering students to reflect upon their learning outcomes, instructors obtain valuable "formative and summative" (Palloff and Pratt, 2005, p. 43)student-generated information useable for tweaking future teaching objectives. Such information should also be distributed to other pertinent university staff who are responsible for designing online learning modules.
The rationale for such a recommendation is not only that others in addition to the instructor can affect new paradigms for improved teaching but also that student feedback provided by end-of-course surveys frequently limits the ability for students to offer deep reflection. Use of online portfolios by students and collaborative groups enables students to showcase work, and aids the instructor and others in assessing students' contributions and degree of learning (Palloff and Pratt, 2005). Instructors may (1) invite learners to supply sample test questions for future development of assessment tools, and (2) direct collaborative groups to design and submit guidelines to the instructor early in the course that will demonstrate the group's competence (Palloff and Pratt, 2007). When students are engaged in their own learning, learning becomes more meaningful and motivational.
A study by Brandes and Boskic (2008) found that learners invited instructors to examine the "individual and the social construction of knowledge"(p. 8). Brandes and Boskic (2008) reported that when instructors offered various "venues for reflection through analytical examinations of exemplars of ePortfolios, discussions of choices of tools, as well as opening spaces for explorations of new ideas and media" (p. 15), the positive effects of reflection expanded exponentially. When instructors become willing to creatively provide e-tools, learners become empowered to direct self-learning.
Methods Employed by Students to Collaboratively Reflect on Course Concepts
Stine (2006) wrote that learners using online journals to reflect upon past and current knowledge can then project their thoughts using a blog or discussion post, review comments received, and then reach further to online resources that will contribute to deeper understanding. As the collaborative element of reflection enables a learner group to share problems, and an opportunity to discuss "very real and often complex issues" (Stine, 2009, p. 205), new and deeper understanding is realized individually. Advising that a group's feedback should offer "both explanation and provocation" (Stine, 2009, p. 205), discussions will be more "intellectually substantive and demanding" (p. 205).
Palloff and Pratt (2005) wrote that collaborating learners have far more opportunities to collect information about other group members. As the information is compounded by time, group members learn of other group members' strengths and weaknesses. If the learners have had the opportunity to appreciate group dynamics, members can positively impact the evolution of weaknesses into strengths. However, all learners should first be cognizant of methods employed for assessing others. The teaching institute and instructor should not only ensure that such methods are communicated to learners but that learners have learned, and are properly utilizing processes for reflection and assessment of peers. Learners should think profoundly about writing notes to others especially how others may perceive the notes as well as making certain their notes are professional and non-inflamatory.
The study by Brandes and Boskic (2008) found that learners' "discussions, reflections, and summaries in ePortfolios…were woven with one organizing theme" (p. 11). Brandes and Boskic (2008) first found that initially learners' "ePortfolios were organized by the required elements…including the rationale, assessment rubric, teaching philosophy, courses, electives, and reflections" (p. 12). However, later in the study, Brandes and Boskic (2008) found that learners' ePortfolios provided "a tool and structure for students to document events, research, ideas, reflect, and analyze these ideas, use the analysis to inform the next steps, and then share their ideas with others" (p. 12).
Geer (2000) wrote that "using collaorative learning approaches can enable internet-based learning to be as effective as the traditional classroom where collaborative learning is a common feature" (p. 2425). Such learning approaches should provide elements of interactivity, which enables "powerful interactions between students (that) can lead to higher order thinking, hypothesis formation and reflection" (Geer, 2000, p. 2425). Collaborative interactivity, which combines collaboration between learners of assigned and self-directed tasks, and involves a "rich discursive interaction, is…an essential component for providing a richer learning experience" (Geer, 2000, p. 2425).
Conclusion
This paper discussed the functions of reflection in online learning, and the strategies usable by instructors (and universities) to support reflection practices for learners. As presented above, new teaching paradigms have identified reflection as an innovative best practice. Sustaining collaboration to achieve new learning objectives has overtaken previously supported teaching methods. As universities and instructors implement reflective methods to support collaboration between students, today's online students can experience very powerful learning opportunities if they choose to do so.
References:
Brandes, G.M., & Boskic, N. (2008, June). Eportfolios: From description to analysis. International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 9(2), 1-17. Retrieved from ERIC.
Geer, R. (2000). Drivers for successful student learning through collaborative interactivity in internet based courses. Retrieved from ERIC.
McBrien, J.L., Jones, P., & Cheng, R. (2009, June). Virtual spaces: Employing a synchronous online classroom to facilitate student engagement in online learning. International Review of Research in Open and Distance Learning, 10(3), 1-17. Retrieved from ERIC.
Palloff, R.M., and Pratt, K. (2005). Collaborating online: Learning together in community. San Francisco, California: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Palloff, R.M., and Pratt, K. (2007). Building online learning communities: Effective strategies for the virtual classroom. San Francisco, California: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Sinclair, A. (2009). Provocative pedagogies in e-learning: Making the invisible visible. International Journal of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education, 21(2), 197-212. Retrieved from ERIC.
Stine, L.J. (2010, Spring). Teaching basic writing in a web-enhanced environment. Journal of Basic Writing, 29(1), 33-55. Retrieved from ERIC.
Wallace, S. (n.d.). Core principles of transformative learning theory - Mezirow & others. Retrieved from http://transformativelearningtheory.com/corePrinciples.html
Sunday, January 22, 2012
Meaningful Feedback for Online Learners and Instructors
Abstract
Both instructors and students carry a responsibility to themselves and others for learning. As that responsibility transitions from the traditional classroom learning to online learning, identifying globally-recognized processes that support meaningful feedback takes on greater urgency. Adopting such processes first requires reflection upon elements that denote differences between feedback and meaningful feedback. Benefitting the community of educators and learners so that relevant societal contributions are possible requires that all efforts be addressed to ensure that meaningful feedback becomes as important an investment in the learning process as any other instructional practice.
Meaningful Feedback
Feedback from students to students as well as to and from the instructor requires additional attributes for online learning; feedback must be meaningful. This paper addresses the importance of meaningful feedback, the benefits of meaningful feedback for students, and strategies employable by instructors, which promote meaningful feedback. Already designed and yet-to-be-designed best practices for promoting students' growth and learning are rapidly changing, and feedback is a critical element within online learning's best practices. Students' as well as instructors' acknowledgement of the need to keep appraised of and use new feedback methods is essential in today's online learning environments' paradigms.
The Importance of Meaningful Feedback
A student's current and future yearning to learn, and attitude toward participating can be depressed if the instructor does not perceive that a student is experiencing alienation from the group and the material (Cochran, 2011). If the group frequently ignores students' forum postings, disconnection from the instructor and class may become evident, and takes extra time for the instructor to resolve. Addressing such an issue early or when it occurs provides a student with the tools needed to positively change the course of their participation and performance. Benfield
(2002) wrote that an instructor's critical responsibility related to providing meaningful feedback includes "identifying key issues that need to be addressed…and suggesting paths for further development" (p. 4).
At the beginning of a course, the Florida Gulf Coast University (2003) reminded online instructors that students must receive specific details about the instructor's schedule for replying to posts and submitting grades, and requirements for the students' postings and assignments. Such information is critically important in the online learning venues especially in the accelerated class structure. Online students can quickly become mired down by becoming confused and frustrated when the parameters for feedback are murky.
"Most online discussions consist of sharing and comparing information, with little evidence of critical analysis or higher order thinking" (Ertmer, et al., 2007, para 3). In Ertmer's (et al., 2007) study, using peer feedback to support the higher levels of thinking was tested. As students gave detailed and meaningful feedback to their peers on forum submissions, students increasingly grew and learned from the feedback because of co-constructed knowledge and improved understanding (Ertmer, et al., 2007). Meaningful feedback that is highly valuable and timely heightens cognitive engagement with the learning material and environment (Ertmer, et al., 2007). Furthermore, feedback mirrors a formative assessment, which is known to advance and hasten learning (Ertmer, et al., 2007).
Palloff and Pratt (2007) discussed that meaningful feedback for online students is a required skill, which must be "taught, modeled and encouraged" (p. 176) by instructors, and should be co-shared by learners. As learners become more adept at providing constructive feedback to each other, the experiences and knowledge of other learners provides mechanisms for learners to adopt and take advantage of to improve learning. By motivating students to "seek first to understand, and then be understood" (Palloff & Pratt, 2007, p. 179), the degree of interdependence between learners, and between learners and the instructor, which builds an online community, is supported. The commencement of deeper learning begins as learners' perceptions and exposure to new online global communities expands.
Benefits that Meaningful Feedback Offers Students
When an instructor uses a feedback strategy that promotes students to do self-assessments, encourages the reflection process, adds a high degree of value to students due to the instructor's quality of feedback content, promotes student achievement as performance goals become more attainable, and assists in motivating students, meaningful feedback is achieved (Biocchi, 2011). Beneficial results obtained from meaningful (and respectful) feedback include connecting students to the learning event, and enabling students to benefit from an instructor's (and students') knowledge, if the instructor (and community of students) frequently provide a high quality of feedback (Biocchi, 2011).
Research by Baran and Correia (2009) disclosed that designing online discussion activities first "requires a thorough learner and needs analysis designing the online activities to target learners’ needs, expectations, and constraints" (p. 358). By providing feedback to students post-analysis, a wealth of information can inform and encourage students to reflect upon their strengths and weaknesses. When instructors are informed prior to a class' beginning of students' strengths and weaknesses, customization of a course's content can result in empowering students to learn (Baran & Correia, 2009).
Benefits to meaningful feedback aids in validating online instructors' competence, and enables instructors to modify online teaching methods (Anderson & Standerford, 2011). Increasing competence benefits instructors by enabling greater effectiveness and improved satisfaction. "Gathering and analyzing feedback from students online informs" (Anderson & Standerford, 2011, p. 6) instructors' practices. As instructors focus more efforts on assessing and using online tools, more meaningful feedback can be delivered in various ways. More efforts result in a higher time commitment but using meaningful feedback improves the instructor's ability to use the best available tools for feedback to students (Anderson & Standerford, 2011). Using those tools to create new paradigms results in replacing the extra time commitment with better teaching solutions. Furthermore, instructors soliciting feedback from peers improves the potential for using improved teaching solutions.
Strategies for Promoting Meaningful Feedback in Online Discussions
Biocchi (2011) wrote that countering students' hesitations to participate can be achieved by providing feedback, which is not only positive but also contributes to a discussion. An instructor can motivate and encourage students by privately sending each student a note customized to the student's character and performance at an opportunistic time during the course (Biocchi, 2011). An instructor can remind students about high standards and performance expectations by showing attention to thoughtful postings or by making vital observations (Benfield, 2002).
Ertmer (et al., 2007) reported that improving feedback's effectiveness requires a strategy that involves feedback elements that are "diagnostic and prescriptive, formative and iterative, and involving both peers and group assessment" (para 7). Instructors have realized such improved effectiveness by giving "prompt, timely, and thorough" (Ertmer, et al., 2007) feedback reflecting the quality of online discussions and grades. Such feedback should be "constructive, supportive, substantive, specific, objective, individual, and consistent" (Ertmer, et al., 2007, para 7).
Using e-mail messages, chat room conversations, and discussion board postings provides instructors with a vehicle to evaluate whether feedback, which is a component of online assessment, from learning events is producing the desired learning outcomes (Gaytan, & McEwen, 2007). Targeting the learning outcomes by designing and communicating a specific rubric is invaluable to the online learning process. After instructors provide timely feedback to learners via relevant assessments based upon the rubric, the instructor should monitor whether feedback was understood and used by learners to increase performance.
Conclusion
Feedback from students to students as well as to and from the instructor requires additional attributes for online learning; feedback must be meaningful. This paper addressed the importance of meaningful feedback, the benefits of meaningful feedback for students, and strategies employable by instructors, which promote meaningful feedback. Best practices for promoting students' growth and learning are rapidly changing. Students' as well as instructors' acknowledgement of the need to keep appraised of and use new feedback methods is essential in today's online learning environments' paradigms.
References:
Anderson, D., Imdieke, S., & Standerford, N. (2011, January). Feedback please: Studying self in the online classroom. International Journal of Instruction, 4(1), 3-16. Retrieved from http://www.e-iji.net/dosyalar/iji_2011_1_1.pdf
Baran, E., & Correia, A. (2009, November). Student-led facilitation strategies in online discussions. Distance Education, 30(3), 339-361. Retrieved from http://www.public.iastate.edu/~acorreia/Student-led%20facilitation%20strategies.pdf
Benfield, G. (2002). Designing and managing effective online discussions. Retrieved from http://www.brookes.ac.uk/services/ocsld/resources/briefing_papers/
online_discussions.pdf
Cochran, S. (2011, June). How to give effective online class feedback, online class feedback and constructive criticism. Retrieved from http://www.brighthub.com/education/online-learning/articles/35429.aspx
Ertmer, P. A, Richardson, J. C., Belland, B., Camin, D., Connolly, P., Coulthard, G., Lei, K., & Mong, C. (2007). Using peer feedback to enhance the quality of student online postings: An exploratory study. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 12(2). Retrieved from http://jcmc.indiana.edu/vol12/issue2/ertmer.html
Florida Gulf Coast University. (2003). Principles of online design: Feedback systems. Retrieved from http://www.fgcu.edu/onlinedesign/interacte.html
Gaytan, J., & McEwen, B. (2007). Effective online instructional and assessment strategies. The American Journal Of Distance Education, 21(3), 117–132. Retrieved from http://edtech.boisestate.edu/elearn/assessment.pdf
M. Biocchi. (2011). Giving meaningful feedback. [Web log comment]. Retrieved from http://educationtech.ca/2011/07/22/giving-meaningful-feedback/
Palloff, R.M., & Pratt, K. (2007). Building online learning communities: Effective strategies for the virtual classroom. San Francisco, California: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Both instructors and students carry a responsibility to themselves and others for learning. As that responsibility transitions from the traditional classroom learning to online learning, identifying globally-recognized processes that support meaningful feedback takes on greater urgency. Adopting such processes first requires reflection upon elements that denote differences between feedback and meaningful feedback. Benefitting the community of educators and learners so that relevant societal contributions are possible requires that all efforts be addressed to ensure that meaningful feedback becomes as important an investment in the learning process as any other instructional practice.
Meaningful Feedback
Feedback from students to students as well as to and from the instructor requires additional attributes for online learning; feedback must be meaningful. This paper addresses the importance of meaningful feedback, the benefits of meaningful feedback for students, and strategies employable by instructors, which promote meaningful feedback. Already designed and yet-to-be-designed best practices for promoting students' growth and learning are rapidly changing, and feedback is a critical element within online learning's best practices. Students' as well as instructors' acknowledgement of the need to keep appraised of and use new feedback methods is essential in today's online learning environments' paradigms.
The Importance of Meaningful Feedback
A student's current and future yearning to learn, and attitude toward participating can be depressed if the instructor does not perceive that a student is experiencing alienation from the group and the material (Cochran, 2011). If the group frequently ignores students' forum postings, disconnection from the instructor and class may become evident, and takes extra time for the instructor to resolve. Addressing such an issue early or when it occurs provides a student with the tools needed to positively change the course of their participation and performance. Benfield
(2002) wrote that an instructor's critical responsibility related to providing meaningful feedback includes "identifying key issues that need to be addressed…and suggesting paths for further development" (p. 4).
At the beginning of a course, the Florida Gulf Coast University (2003) reminded online instructors that students must receive specific details about the instructor's schedule for replying to posts and submitting grades, and requirements for the students' postings and assignments. Such information is critically important in the online learning venues especially in the accelerated class structure. Online students can quickly become mired down by becoming confused and frustrated when the parameters for feedback are murky.
"Most online discussions consist of sharing and comparing information, with little evidence of critical analysis or higher order thinking" (Ertmer, et al., 2007, para 3). In Ertmer's (et al., 2007) study, using peer feedback to support the higher levels of thinking was tested. As students gave detailed and meaningful feedback to their peers on forum submissions, students increasingly grew and learned from the feedback because of co-constructed knowledge and improved understanding (Ertmer, et al., 2007). Meaningful feedback that is highly valuable and timely heightens cognitive engagement with the learning material and environment (Ertmer, et al., 2007). Furthermore, feedback mirrors a formative assessment, which is known to advance and hasten learning (Ertmer, et al., 2007).
Palloff and Pratt (2007) discussed that meaningful feedback for online students is a required skill, which must be "taught, modeled and encouraged" (p. 176) by instructors, and should be co-shared by learners. As learners become more adept at providing constructive feedback to each other, the experiences and knowledge of other learners provides mechanisms for learners to adopt and take advantage of to improve learning. By motivating students to "seek first to understand, and then be understood" (Palloff & Pratt, 2007, p. 179), the degree of interdependence between learners, and between learners and the instructor, which builds an online community, is supported. The commencement of deeper learning begins as learners' perceptions and exposure to new online global communities expands.
Benefits that Meaningful Feedback Offers Students
When an instructor uses a feedback strategy that promotes students to do self-assessments, encourages the reflection process, adds a high degree of value to students due to the instructor's quality of feedback content, promotes student achievement as performance goals become more attainable, and assists in motivating students, meaningful feedback is achieved (Biocchi, 2011). Beneficial results obtained from meaningful (and respectful) feedback include connecting students to the learning event, and enabling students to benefit from an instructor's (and students') knowledge, if the instructor (and community of students) frequently provide a high quality of feedback (Biocchi, 2011).
Research by Baran and Correia (2009) disclosed that designing online discussion activities first "requires a thorough learner and needs analysis designing the online activities to target learners’ needs, expectations, and constraints" (p. 358). By providing feedback to students post-analysis, a wealth of information can inform and encourage students to reflect upon their strengths and weaknesses. When instructors are informed prior to a class' beginning of students' strengths and weaknesses, customization of a course's content can result in empowering students to learn (Baran & Correia, 2009).
Benefits to meaningful feedback aids in validating online instructors' competence, and enables instructors to modify online teaching methods (Anderson & Standerford, 2011). Increasing competence benefits instructors by enabling greater effectiveness and improved satisfaction. "Gathering and analyzing feedback from students online informs" (Anderson & Standerford, 2011, p. 6) instructors' practices. As instructors focus more efforts on assessing and using online tools, more meaningful feedback can be delivered in various ways. More efforts result in a higher time commitment but using meaningful feedback improves the instructor's ability to use the best available tools for feedback to students (Anderson & Standerford, 2011). Using those tools to create new paradigms results in replacing the extra time commitment with better teaching solutions. Furthermore, instructors soliciting feedback from peers improves the potential for using improved teaching solutions.
Strategies for Promoting Meaningful Feedback in Online Discussions
Biocchi (2011) wrote that countering students' hesitations to participate can be achieved by providing feedback, which is not only positive but also contributes to a discussion. An instructor can motivate and encourage students by privately sending each student a note customized to the student's character and performance at an opportunistic time during the course (Biocchi, 2011). An instructor can remind students about high standards and performance expectations by showing attention to thoughtful postings or by making vital observations (Benfield, 2002).
Ertmer (et al., 2007) reported that improving feedback's effectiveness requires a strategy that involves feedback elements that are "diagnostic and prescriptive, formative and iterative, and involving both peers and group assessment" (para 7). Instructors have realized such improved effectiveness by giving "prompt, timely, and thorough" (Ertmer, et al., 2007) feedback reflecting the quality of online discussions and grades. Such feedback should be "constructive, supportive, substantive, specific, objective, individual, and consistent" (Ertmer, et al., 2007, para 7).
Using e-mail messages, chat room conversations, and discussion board postings provides instructors with a vehicle to evaluate whether feedback, which is a component of online assessment, from learning events is producing the desired learning outcomes (Gaytan, & McEwen, 2007). Targeting the learning outcomes by designing and communicating a specific rubric is invaluable to the online learning process. After instructors provide timely feedback to learners via relevant assessments based upon the rubric, the instructor should monitor whether feedback was understood and used by learners to increase performance.
Conclusion
Feedback from students to students as well as to and from the instructor requires additional attributes for online learning; feedback must be meaningful. This paper addressed the importance of meaningful feedback, the benefits of meaningful feedback for students, and strategies employable by instructors, which promote meaningful feedback. Best practices for promoting students' growth and learning are rapidly changing. Students' as well as instructors' acknowledgement of the need to keep appraised of and use new feedback methods is essential in today's online learning environments' paradigms.
References:
Anderson, D., Imdieke, S., & Standerford, N. (2011, January). Feedback please: Studying self in the online classroom. International Journal of Instruction, 4(1), 3-16. Retrieved from http://www.e-iji.net/dosyalar/iji_2011_1_1.pdf
Baran, E., & Correia, A. (2009, November). Student-led facilitation strategies in online discussions. Distance Education, 30(3), 339-361. Retrieved from http://www.public.iastate.edu/~acorreia/Student-led%20facilitation%20strategies.pdf
Benfield, G. (2002). Designing and managing effective online discussions. Retrieved from http://www.brookes.ac.uk/services/ocsld/resources/briefing_papers/
online_discussions.pdf
Cochran, S. (2011, June). How to give effective online class feedback, online class feedback and constructive criticism. Retrieved from http://www.brighthub.com/education/online-learning/articles/35429.aspx
Ertmer, P. A, Richardson, J. C., Belland, B., Camin, D., Connolly, P., Coulthard, G., Lei, K., & Mong, C. (2007). Using peer feedback to enhance the quality of student online postings: An exploratory study. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 12(2). Retrieved from http://jcmc.indiana.edu/vol12/issue2/ertmer.html
Florida Gulf Coast University. (2003). Principles of online design: Feedback systems. Retrieved from http://www.fgcu.edu/onlinedesign/interacte.html
Gaytan, J., & McEwen, B. (2007). Effective online instructional and assessment strategies. The American Journal Of Distance Education, 21(3), 117–132. Retrieved from http://edtech.boisestate.edu/elearn/assessment.pdf
M. Biocchi. (2011). Giving meaningful feedback. [Web log comment]. Retrieved from http://educationtech.ca/2011/07/22/giving-meaningful-feedback/
Palloff, R.M., & Pratt, K. (2007). Building online learning communities: Effective strategies for the virtual classroom. San Francisco, California: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Thursday, July 8, 2010
599 Program Payments
I just wonder tonight again why I cannot get the truth from the New York State Department of Labor's 599 Special Programs Unit about the 17 weeks of benefits I was approved for in April 2009...this week marks the fourth week I have not received, and praises to God that I still have a roof over my head. I have 3 more courses to finish in my Master's of Education program...what state should I teach for? Hmmmm...Why is there a 599 program if they are not paying NY's approved recipients? Why cannot my senator's office (the Honorable Valesky) find out why the monies that the state has for these benefits are not flowing? When there is a big secret that citizens of this state and country are kept from, why do we pay taxes to support all of these entities? When I make a promise, and I say something, I live up to my word. What happened to others' words? I deserve much better.
Monday, June 28, 2010
Oil Spill Video - Absorb Activity
See my Absorb Activity for fifth graders at http://www.mapwing.com/explore/view_tour.php?t=xqhPHA9HqPyAHAy
Oil Spill Prototype in PowerPoint
See my Do Activity about an Oil Spill Prototype @ http://www.screencast.com/t/NzhkYTNhZ Download!
Sunday, June 27, 2010
Learning activities
Check out this SlideShare Presentation:
Learning activities
View more presentations from Leeward Community College.
Subscribe to:
Posts (Atom)