Applying Learning Theories to Guide Instructional Practice

Applying Theory and Research 

            The following presents findings extracted from scholarly works that address learning theories' applications for resolving worldwide dilemmas related to human-welfare issues.  Human-welfare issues relate to societies, cultures, ethics, economies, governance, and communications.  The information from existing research answers the manner in which learning theories guide instructional strategies for post-secondary e-learning.  Also included are examples of learning theories applied within learning environments, and assessments of the appropriateness of those theories.       

Applying Learning Theories to Guide Instructional Practice

            Christensen (2008) wrote that every learning setting includes learning goals that require instructional strategies specifically focused toward achieving each goal.  Consequently, each goal requires one or more learning theories tied to learning strategies.  Organizing the dozens of learning theories into succinct categories aids an instructor's decision-making required for each learning setting.  Christensen (2008) explained that four categories aid instructors in designing teaching activities as each learning setting arises.  The "behavioral, information processing, psychological/individual constructivist, and social/situated constructivist views" (Christensen, 2008, p. 27) represent such categories. 

            An example of an instructor's learning theory selection process for guiding students in solving a problem related to a current societal issue may combine the social constructivist and behaviorist learning theories (Christensen, 2008).  Combining these theories presents learning activities wherein students co-construct knowledge via learning teams, and the instructor uses motivational strategies from the behaviorist theory in connection to the learning activities by providing extra points for exceptional teamwork (Christensen, 2008).     

            Christensen (2008) provided insight regarding designing instruction based upon one or more instructional issues such as training, preparation, and education.  The appropriate learning theories for training learners who need improvement or an upgrade in computer skills could use Bloom's mastery learning model, Skinner's program instruction, or Keller's personalized systems of instruction (Christensen, 2008).  Combining theories to transition learners from training to preparation provides instructors with an opportunity to teach learners "critical prerequisite concepts necessary for performing a job" (Christensen, 2008, p. 30).  Applying learning theories such as "Ausubel's meaningful reception learning or Gagné's theory of instruction" (Christensen, 2008, p. 30) supports this transition. 

            Finally, if the instructional problem requires further learning, such as working cooperatively in teams while solving work problems, learning theories added to the previous two stages could include "Schank's goal-based scenarios, Savery and Duffy's problem-based learning, or Michaelsen's team-based learning" (Christensen, 2008, p. 30).  The instructor includes considerations of "time, cost, and contextual constraints" (Christensen, 2008, p. 30).  By selecting theories that can achieve maximum learning, achievement of instructional goals  increases exponentially.

            A study by Hamat and Embi (2010) indicates that the constructivist learning theory represents the philosophy applicable to a set of several learning theories.  From a learner's perspective, the set involves constructing knowledge.  From an instructor's perspective, the set requires supporting learners as knowledge is constructed.  The four principles embodying constructivism explain that learners' interfaces with the environment and experiences provide deconstruction and reconstruction of the learning matter using "assimilation and accommodation" (Hamat & Embi, 2010, p. 238).  As learners accommodate the reconstruction process, a "higher level theory or logic" (Hamat & Embi, 2010, p. 238) occurs.  Constructivism's third principle explains that student learning derives via "investigation, predicting, imagining, manipulation of information and invention" (Hamat & Embi, 2010, p. 238).  Reflection occurring during the development of learner's constructs focuses upon resolving conflicts (Hamat & Embi, 2010).  

Important Issues Attributable to Applying Learning Theories to Practice

            Nworie and Haughton (2008) remarked that online instruction has posed new issues for teachers due to disruptions from learning caused by "instant messaging, computer games, web surfing, and personal projects" (p. 52), which adversely impacts an effective application of learning theories.  Furthermore, instructors, and students develop technological skills at varying levels.  Even as instructor's intentions for improving learning via new and quickly changing technologies persist, such changes impede rather than construct learning.

            The Law of Unintended Consequences explains that unexpected effects that accompany change cause unanticipated negative or positive results (Nworie & Haughton, 2008).  The introduction of new e-learning tools cause such effects.  Unanticipated results caused by "ignorance, error, immediacy, basic values, and self-defeating prophecy" (Nworie & Haughton, 2008, p. 54) arise from instructors who fail to fully examine and comprehend the implications of using new technologies. 

            Consequently, sustained by standard operating procedures, instructors roll out previously used teaching strategies without allowing for disruptions to learning theories.  Not reflecting upon possible unintended consequences marginalizes learning.  As instructors increasingly convert teaching strategies to the online class, budgeting restrictions and development creates new issues that require revisions in the selection of appropriate learning theories (Nworie & Haughton, 2008).  Evolution conflicts with sensitive equilibriums inherent within instructional systems and processes.   

            Gijbels, Segers, and Struyf (2008) investigated if a constructivist learning episode shifted learners into deeper learning.  In addition, Gijbels et al. (2008) examined students' perceptions of increasing assessment demands.  Learners were differentiated by either a restricted or variable learning approach (Gijbels, Segers, & Struyf, 2008), which impacted transitions to higher or lower surface learning.  The study by Gijbels et al. (2008) disclosed that increased deep learning was not achieved in a "constructivist learning and assessment environment" (p. 435).

            Specifically, the restricted learning approach demonstrated a low variability in both deep and surface learning attributes.  Conversely, the variable group demonstrated high variability in deep and surface learning attributes.  Therefore, the depth of learning approaches was affected by learners' perceptibility, and limited an ability to change learning approaches.  The constructivist learning theory states that knowledge is actively constructed by the learner.  Apparently, instructors should consider the study by Gijbels, Segers, and Struyf (2008) before applying the constructivist learning theory because inconsistent deep learning arises during active knowledge construction.  However, there is one caveat for instructors to consider, which is that Gijbels et al. (2008) suggested that their study's results needed further examination to strengthen validity.

            Snyder (2010) taps into the impact that constructivism bears upon instructional-design theories, which guides the selection of instructional methods.  Instructors who present "authentic learning scenarios and problems" (Snyder, 2010, p. 50) to learners proffer new information.  The new information merges with learners' current understanding and experiences, and results in knowledge construction.  Presenting authentic learning is by no means easily mastered, and some instructors are more challenged than others. 

            Therefore, "meaningful and transferable learning" (Snyder, 2010, p. 50) occurs at varying degrees from little to nearly limitless amounts.  In addition to the challenges faced by instructors, students at various levels in the construction process act differently to new knowledge and fail to resolve "physical, mental, or social dissonance" (Snyder, 2010, p. 50).  Skilled instructors sense such breakdowns in knowledge creation, and can anticipate and provide supportive information to prevent such issues.  Because students require improved electronic proficiencies to create solutions to the growing number of complex problems, an instructor's responsibility for recognizing, researching, and devising methods that enrich learners' constructive processes continues to increase. 

Examples of the Constructivist Learning Theory Applied 

            Gijbels, Segers, and Struyf (2008) tested previous researchers' empirical work in a non-constructivist learning environment.  The previous work concentrated upon students' intended and actual approaches to learning as new assessment methods were integrated (Gijbels, Segers, & Struyf, 2008).  The study intention of Gijbels et al. (2008) focused upon determining if a constructivist learning environment for education students altered learning approaches when provided with assessment requirements.  Apparently, a commonly accepted concept by instructors explained that students employ "surface and deep approaches" (Gijbels et al., 2008, p. 432) according to assessment demands.

            A description of the methodology used by Gijbels, Segers, and Struyf (2008) included an instructional goals-linked constructivist learning environment that blended active learning with assessments that provided the students with "guided self-study, activating lectures, two authentic group assignments, and two individual assignments" (p. 435).  Because the essay's focus is presenting application of the constructivist learning theory, the study findings by Gijbels et al. (2008) note only that learners do not change learning approaches toward deeper learning.  In addition, the article represented examples of the manner in which the constructivist learning theory was applied during an empirical research project.

            Gijbels, Segers, and Struyf (2008) recommended that instructors reflect upon learners' variability in learning approaches before using the constructivist theory.  For example, Gijbels et al. (2008) suggested that learners may require extra time to become accommodated to learning approaches, which provides a buffer so that instructors can aid learners in adapting.  In response to the need for a buffer, Lucariello (2012) suggested initiatives to instructors rolling out new learning concepts and theories.  For example, instructors' initiatives should provide learning opportunities that students perceive as "plausible, high-quality, intelligible, and generative" (Lucariello, 2012, para. 3).  Group discussions require learners' access to personal knowledge during the preparation of verbal responses (Lucariello, 2012).  Other initiatives included "model-based reasoning, diverse instruction, raising student metacognition, and epistemological thinking" (Lucariello, 2012, para. 3).

            Koohang, Riley, Smith, and Schreurs (2009) presented three components of constructivism in an e-learning model, which warrants a review due to the article focusing upon teaching business students online, which is part of the aforementioned specialization.  Koohang et al. (2009) presented several examples of their model in practice, and summarized 18 characteristics of the constructivist theory.  The model's three constructivist components included the "design of learning activities, learning assessments, and instructor's roles" (Koohang, Riley, Smith, & Schreurs, 2009, p. 94). 

            Designing learning activities referred to elements that embodied fundamental and collaborative designs espousing learning activities such as "collaboration, cooperation, multiple perspectives, real world examples, scaffolding, self-reflection, multiple representations of ideas, and social negotiation" (Koohan, Riley, Smith, & Schreurs, 2009, p. 94).  Instructors explained to learners that using "experiences and/or knowledge" (Koohang et al., 2009, p. 95) encouraged "interrelatedness and interdisciplinary learning" (Koohang et al., 2009, p. 95).  Consequently, the learning situation challenged learners to assimilate new knowledge that additionally pushed learners beyond their comfort levels (Koohang et al., 2009).

            The second component referred to elements explained as the learning assessment, which advocated assessments for the "instructor, learner collaboration, and self" (Koohang, Riley, Smith, & Schreurs, 2009, p. 94).  The third component portrayed as instructor's roles included  "coaching, guiding, mentoring, acknowledging, providing feedback, and assessing student learning" (Koohang et al., 2009, p. 94).  The students participating in the study by Koohang, Riley, Smith, and Schreurs (2009) were not informed of the model's use although feedback to students encompassed all components of their model.  Withholding the model's information could imply that Koohang's et al. (2009) team wanted responses driven by the learners rather than the learners attempting to second guess what the instructor might be seeking. 

            One of the assignments designed by Koohang, Riley, Smith, and Schreurs (2009) included an assignment for the e-learning business students.  Specifically, the assignment stipulated that learners investigate an actual knowledge management (KM) business.  Learners were required to investigate the online company's management and "improve its key performance indicators such as page views, server load, network traffic, and transactions per second" (Koohang Riley, Smith, & Schreurs, 2009, p. 96).  The instructor communicated the reading and writing assignment to the students, which required "clear, concise, and persuasive" (Koohang et al., 2009, p. 103) responses.

            Santally et al. (2012) questioned if e-learning could evolve with constructivism (a.k.a. socio-constructivism) as a new paradigmatic learning framework, and discussed possible implications for teaching and learning applications.  Santally et al. (2012) proffered principles for designing a learning system grounded in the constructivist learning theory that included:

            Learning (that) should be internally controlled and mediated by the learner…(focusing)    on realistic approaches to (solve) real-world problems…fostering reflective practice… …presenting authentic tasks…(enabling) context-and content dependent knowledge construction…(and) supporting collaborative construction of knowledge through social negotiation.  (p. 13)

            Santally's et al. (2012) project confirmed the application of the principles noted above.  For example, participants' remarks revealed (a) controlled learning; (b) that the design and teaching approaches sustained learners' focus by embracing "realistic and…creative approaches" (Santally et al., 2012, p. 13); (c) that learning journals demonstrated levels of efficiency and effectiveness that cultivated deep, reflective thinking; and (d) that authentic learning tools supported learning and application of new knowledge in various learning scenarios, such as in discussion forums and Facebook. 

            Peng, Su, Chou, and Tsai (2009) attempted to conceptualize a constructivist framework for  wireless mobile learning (m-learning).  Technologies have emerged as "intellectual partners, or mind tool(s)" (Peng, Su, Chou, & Tsai, 2009, p. 179) that augment constructive learning.  For example, learners increasingly choose e-tools and other electronic devices according to their potential learning value.  Also, potential learning values materialize as learners take advantage of accessing the Internet from any place at anytime with ever-increasing numbers of people and resources.  The most important impact upon knowledge construction that m-learning provides that differs from wired technologies includes "convenience, expediency, and immediacy" (Peng et al., 2009, p. 174).  Learners and instructors alike are increasingly challenged to learn as much and as quickly as possible how to maximize the utility of m-tools for knowledge construction.       

            Martens, Bastiaens, and Kirschner (2007) discussed the pressures from "constructivism, information, and communications technology on learning" (p. 81).  A study by Martens et al. (2007) using a constructivist e-learning environment (CEE) involved comparing the learning expectations of the study's developers to students' actual learning experiences.  The developers expected that if students were provided with a badly constructed assignment, students would be motivated to re-interpret the assignment, and in so doing, develop the skills required to find solutions (Martens, Bastiaens, & Kirschner, 2007).  Instead, students easily reconstructed the assignment, and unchallenged, found solutions using surface thinking.  Consequently, the developers wrongly anticipated students' reactions to the assignment although the students appreciated the challenge.    

            Martens, Bastiaens, and Kirschner (2007) concluded that although CEEs are used for generic students, instructors and researchers need to be more cognizant of the combined effects from learners' "characteristics, study outcomes, and appreciation of CEEs" (p. 90).  Developers and instructors must additionally acknowledge that an activity may seem to align with the constructivist theory when learners' perceptions of the activity does not align with the theory's activity.  Students' learning outcomes cannot be successful if a CCE does not assist learners in visualizing a bridge for constructing new knowledge. 

Appropriate Uses of the Constructivist Learning Theory 

            Gijbels, Segers, and Struyf (2008) suggested their study's results needed re-examination to strengthen validity because their study was the first of its kind.  Gijbels et al. (2008) found that executing constructivist learning, and an assessment environment did not result in students employing a deep learning approach.  By not presenting an activity that challenged learners, most students used surface learning techniques, which did not motivate learners to construct new knowledge for problem-solving.  Gijbels et al. (2008) additionally found that if students did not perceive that an activity and its assessment was difficult, knowledge construction was impaired.  Consequently, Gijbels et al. (2008) did not sufficiently apply the constructivist learning theory, which resulted in learners not constructing new knowledge. 

            The study by Martens, Bastiaens, and Kirschner (2007) somewhat mirrored the study by Gijbels, Segers, and Struyf (2008) because learners' perceptions impacted their research project.  Martens et al. (2007) did not appropriately apply the constructivist learning theory as seen in their unsuccessful attempt to use the theory to activate construction of learner's knowledge.  Research projects frequently ask questions that require purposely testing hypotheses using learning theories.  As a means to conduct a test, unexpected coincidental results may occur.  However, in the case of the research project by Martens et al. (2007), the study's unexpected outcome was due to failure in addressing generally accepted concepts known about the constructivist learning theory.  Martens et al. (2007) did not design their activity fervently enough to motivate the students because the team relied upon their perceptions instead of the students' perceptions.

            The article by Koohang, Riley, Smith, and Schreurs (2009) discussed above noted that the intention of the writers was to use students' feedback for their study.  Appropriately, the writers filed paperwork to an IRB, and the IRB approved the project's application as written.  The application provided a process to assure the study's participants that their answers would be confidential.  Koohang et al. (2009) accomplished a sound literary review, which supported the constructivist theory's principles within their model.  However, Koohang et al. (2009) did not include literature that contradicted or challenged the authors' findings.  Researchers have an obligation to present unsupportive literature as much as supportive literature. 

            Koohang, Riley, Smith, and Schreurs (2009) noted that their model was designed and presented in an earlier work by Koohang.  The model was applied in each case study presented in Koohang et al. (2009).  A wise recommendation by Koohang et al. (2009) included that other researchers test their model to determine if the model could be improved.  However, Koohang et al. (2009) did not recommend an empirical study by other researchers, which would test the model's reliability and validity.  Because Koohang et al. (2009) mentioned that the design of the model occurred before his team performed the case studies, this writer takes an objection to Koohang et al. (2009) retrofitting the students' feedback to the model's conceptual theories, which included the constructivist learning theory. 

            By retrofitting participants' feedback to a research model, some researchers could choose to modify feedback to fit their desired research outcomes.  In fact, others less familiar with the model may have accepted that the design represented an "advantage (when used) in e-leaning environments" (Koohang, Riley, Smith, & Schreurs, 2009, p. 92).  Koohang, Riley, Smith, and Schreurs (2009) fitted feedback to the model.  Subsequently, Koohang et al. (2009) declared that the model integrated all of the constructivism elements because feedback referred to each element.  Koohang et al.'s (2009) retrofitting probably biased the study, and invalidated the study's findings.

            Curious if Koohang had conducted an empirical study after the 2009 article, the author responded to an inquiry on November 1, 2012.  Indeed, Koohang published another article but did not conduct a scientific study of his model.  Instead, Koohang's purpose in his 2012 article was to advance concepts relative to the learning model presented in his previous 2009 article (Koohang, 2012).  Koohang (2012) indicated that the model was tested twice since 2009 and would be published in 2012.  Four years post the model's introduction, instructors employing the model by Koohang, Riley, Smith, and Schreurs (2009) may already know if the model helps or hurts learning. 

            Santally et al. (2012) based recommendations upon a wealth of literature but did not include a scientific test of their model.  Remarks by Santally et al. (2012) indicated their learning model provided "a new dimension to the conception of online distance learning courses" (p. 13).  However, the claim by Santally et al. (2012) is concerning because they sought to dispel criticism rather than conduct an empirical study that may have supported their integrated learning model.  If Santally et al. (2012) chose not to do an empirical study because they sensed such a study would not support their model, questionable ethical behavior could exist.

            The article by Santally et al. (2012) discussed two e-learning methodologies useful for achieving productive learning outcomes.  Santally et al. (2012) combined methodologies with e-tools such as an "e-book approach, rapid e-learning techniques, and online activity-based instructional design" (p. 13).  Santally et al. (2012) remarked that (a) constructivist supporters thought that the e-book learning approach merely dumps more information onto the electronic global information network rather than adding value to learning, and (b) rapid e-learning reduces interactions between the instructor and learner. 

            The differences between the first and second teaching method is that the first model presents learning resources such as "e-books, interactive quizzes, and exercises" (Santally et al., 2012, p. 10) for use in completing individual or group assignments.  The second model progressively adds resources relevant to the activities, and includes a more active instructor role. Both teaching methods employed constructivist principles that supported learner control, focused upon authentic problems needing reflection and resolution, provided "context and content dependent knowledge construction" (Santally et al., 2012, p. 10) while working with other learners.

            Santally et al. (2012) remarked that his approach created a new paradigm for e-learning that addresses criticisms of learning platforms, and provides a focus on the "educational transaction" (p. 13).  Unfortunately for the reader, Santally et al. (2012) did not scientifically test their proposed methods.   Because Santally et al. (2012) failed to test their proposed models, judgment of their models' value is untenable.  

            Peng, Su, Chou, and Tsai (2009) discussed a constructivist framework for wireless mobile learning (m-learning).  Technologies, in general, have emerged as "intellectual partners, or mindtool(s)" (Peng, Su, Chou, & Tsai, 2009, p. 179) that augment constructive learning.  For example, learners and instructors increasingly choose e-tools and other electronic devices according to their potential learning value (Peng et al., 2009).  Significant learning materializes as learners take advantage of accessing the Internet from any place at anytime with ever-increasing numbers of people (Peng et al., 2009). 

            Apparently, the most important effect from m-learning that differs from wired technologies relative to constructing knowledge are "convenience, expediency, and immediacy" (Peng, Su, Chou, & Tsai, 2009, p. 174).  Learners and instructors alike are increasingly challenged to learn quickly and completely as well as adapt the processes required of knowledge construction that maximize the utility of m-tools.  Other emerging challenges include competing learning technologies that confuse students and instructors alike, depletion of the available time for learning, and depression of instructor-activated creativity as learning activities are designed (Peng et al., 2009). 

            Peng, Su, Chou, and Tsai (2009) suggested that researchers interested in investigating the efficacy of advancing technologies such as m-learning to enlighten constructivist learning environments use their article's information.  There are countless numbers of such articles that summarize others' works, and propose new concepts.  However, without including a scientific study to test the reliability and validity of conceptual recommendations, using such a recommendation is difficult.

Conclusion 

            Exploring the application of learning theories in scholarly works leads to new discoveries for resolving worldwide dilemmas related to human-welfare issues.  These issues include problems related to societies, cultures, ethics, economies, governments, and communications.  The information from existing research answered the manner in which learning theories guided instructional strategies for post-secondary e-learning.  Also included were examples of learning theories applied within learning environments, and assessments of the appropriateness of those theories.      

References:

Al-Huneidi, A.M., & Schreurs, J. (2012). Constructivism based blended learning in higher education. International Journal of Emerging Technologies in Learning, (7), 4-9. doi:10.3991/ijet.v7i1.1792

Christensen, T.K. (2008, April). The role of theory in instructional design: Some views of an ID practitioner. Performance Improvement, (47), 425-32. Retrieved from http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/pfi.199/pdf

Gijbels, D., Segers, M., & Struyf, E. (2008). Constructivist learning environments and the (im)possibility to change students’ perceptions of assessment demands and approaches to learning. Instructional Science, 36, 431–443. doi:10.1007/s11251-008-9064-7         

Hamat, A.,& Embi, M.A. (2010, October). Constructivism in the design of online learning tools. European Journal of Educational Studies, (2)3, 237-246. Retrieved from http://ozelacademy.com/EJES_v2n3_7.pdf

Harris, K.R., & Alexander, P.A. (1998). Integrated, Constructivist education: Challenge and reality. Educational Psychology Review, 10(2), 115-127. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1022169018926

Koohang, A., Riley, L., Smith, T., & Schreurs, J. (2009). E-learning and constructivism: From theory to application. Interdisciplinary Journal of E-Learning and Learning Objects, (5). doi:10.1504/IJIL.2009.021685

Koohang, A. (2012). Active learning in e-learning: Advancing a systemic model. Issues in Information Systems, (13)1, 68-76. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1504/IJIL.2009.021685

Lucariello, J. (2012). How do I get my students over their alternative conceptions (misconceptions) for learning? Removing barriers to aid in the development of the student. Retrieved from http://www.iu1.org/special/files/schoolpsych/resources/Getting%20students%20over%20misconceptions.pdf

Martens, R., Bastiaens, T., & Kirschner, P. (2007, May) A new learning design in distance education: The impact on student perception and motivation. falseDistance Education, (28)1, 81-93. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com.proxy1.ncu.edu/docview/217782846?accountid=28180

Nijhuis, J., Segers, M., & Gijselaers, W. (2008). The extent of variability in learning strategies and students’ perceptions of the learning environment. Learning and Instruction, 2, 121–134. Retrieved from http://arno.unimaas.nl/show.cgi?fid=19140.

Nworie, J., & Haughton, N. (2008, Sep/Oct). Good intentions and unanticipated effects: the unintended consequences of the application of technology in teaching and learning environments. TechTrends, (52)5, 52-58. doi: 10.1007/s11528-008-0197-y

Peng, H., Su, Y., Chou, C., & Tsai, C. (2009, May). Ubiquitous knowledge construction: Mobile learning re-defined and a conceptual framework. fInnovations in Education and Teaching International,(46)2, 171-183. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com.proxy1.ncu.edu/

docview/210676131?accountid=28180

Santally, M.I., Rajabalee, Y., Cooshna-Naik, D., Rodriguez, C.O., Dedić, V., Marković, S., ... &     Puxley, M. (2012, July 30). Learning design implementation for distance e-learning: blending rapid e-learning techniques with activity-based pedagogies to design and implement a socio-constructivist environment. European Journal of Open, Distance, and e-Learning. Retrieved from http://www.eurodl.org/materials/contrib/2012/Santally_et_al.pdf  

Snyder, M.M. (2009, January/February). Instructional-design theory to guide the creation of online learning communities for adults. TechTrends, 53(1), 48-56. Retrieved http://search.proquest.com.proxy1.ncu.edu/docview/223119414?accountid=28180

 

 

Evaluation Research Methodology to Assess Instructional Techniques and Technologies for Improving Academic Performance in America's Secondary (High School) Students

            Conducting further research reviews provided an opportunity to reflect upon a research method known as Evaluation Research, which can be used for a quantitative or qualitative study (Clarke & Dawson, 1999).  Evaluation Research would be relevant for researchers interested in the affects of instructional techniques and technologies on academic performance in America and other nations.   Clarke and Dawson (1999) pointed out that "evaluation research is a form of applied research which aims to produce information about the implementation, operation and ultimate effectiveness of policies and programs designed to bring about change" (p. 2), studies "the effectiveness with which existing knowledge is used to inform and guide practical action" (p. 2), and is "conducted to inform decisions, clarify options, reduce uncertainties, and provide information about programs and policies" (p. 2).   

            Silver (2004) explained that the evaluation research method can be used to collect data, which involves "student feedback, a new course or form of delivery, or…the student experience" (par. 46).  Such data sources were identified in the Concept Paper.  Questionnaires may be used with or without participant interviews or in group discussions as long as a particular group member does not dominate.  Other data collection tools include "observation, interviews, questionnaires and tests, documentary and background sources, focus groups, implementation logs, feedback and testing methods" (Silver, 2004, par. 39). 

            A "Nominal Group Technique (NGT) has the same purpose, but normally involves no discussion (except for item clarification)" (Silver, 2004, par. 39).  The goal of NGT is to ensure maximum objectivity of the participants’ written viewpoints.  The second stage of the evaluation method provides feedback to teachers who can then see if there were successes or failures post-instruction.  The third and final stage involves using the feedback to initiate change.   Trochim (2006) explained that the evaluation method is a "systematic acquisition and assessment of information to provide useful feedback about some object…such as a program, policy, technology, person, need, activity, and so on…with the major goal (being) to influence decision-making or policy formulation through the provision of empirically-driven feedback" (par. 2).  The setting for using an evaluation method is typically within a "political or organizational platform" (Trochim, 2006, par. 2).  Researcher evaluators need "group skills, management ability, political dexterity, sensitivity to multiple stakeholders and other skills" (Trochim, 2006, par. 1). 

            The dominant evaluation research strategies are the "scientific-experimental models, management-oriented systems models, qualitative/anthropological models, and the participant-oriented models" (Trochim, 2006, par. 5).  Most good researcher evaluators recognize the four strategies, and intermix them as needed.  The formative and summative evaluation types are the most widely used types of evaluations.  For example, formative research asks, "what is the definition and scope of the problem or issue, or what's the question; where is the problem and how big or serious is it; how should the program or technology be delivered to address the problem, and how well is the program or technology delivered?" (Trochim, 2006, par. 14).  Summative evaluation asks, "what type of evaluation is feasible; what was the effectiveness of the program or technology; and what is the net impact of the program?" (Trochim, 2006, par. 18).  

           The results attainable from an Evaluation Research Method could provide distinct information that the American government and educators could embrace to improve academic performance because America's instructional techniques and technologies could emulate those used by higher ranking nations.  Using evaluation research could "provide useful feedback about (instructional) program(s), polic(ies), and technolog(ies)…with the major goal (being) to influence decision-making or policy formulation through the provision of empirically-driven feedback" (Trochim, 2006, par. 2).  

 

References:

Clarke, A., & Dawson, R. (1999). Evaluation research. Retrieved from Sage Research Methods.

Silver, H. (2004). Evaluation Research in Education. Retrieved from http://www.edu.plymouth.ac.uk/resined/evaluation/index.htm

Trochim, W.M.K. (2002). Introduction to Evaluation. Retrieved from http://www.socialresearchmethods.net/kb/intreval.htm  

Experimental versus Exploratory Research

Experimental versus Exploratory Research

Exposure to the vast number of research methods easily perplexes learners anticipating their first important research project.  Attempting to extricate the seemingly irrelevant components that an inexperienced learner-researcher gains from reading numerous studies, and focusing instead upon a research method that is identified as useful for their dissertation, is difficult.  Therefore, since the target of this discussion is experimental and exploratory research methods, my objective is to only consider these two methods, which will possibly benefit my upcoming exploratory research project.  Consequently, the information that follows summarizes information from writers that has, in my opinion, contributed to important new understanding that may impact my upcoming project. 

Lelouche (2006) discussed experimental learning methods used in academia: "the learning domain is well known, the expected user is a student, and the technology…is used to guide (the student's) learning" (p. 8).  Conversely, exploratory learning methods provide an almost entirely unstructured setting, the user is represented by a researcher, and technologies provide the user with tools to explore learning scenarios that encourage discovery (Lelouche, 2006).  Lelouche (2006) posited that exploratory learning is minimally used, and encourages teachers to combine exploratory and experimental methods.  A new paradigm in research methodology?

Experimental research includes manipulating variables.  Exploratory research does not manipulate variables.  Exploratory research may point the researcher and other researchers toward more formal research.  An objective of exploratory research is to clarify indistinct dilemmas, and get a better grasp on the magnitude of dilemmas.  Exploratory research does not typically identify with action research.  Researchers undertaking exploratory research expect that further research could provide solutions (MBA Knowledge Base, 2012).

I particularly enjoy finding articles representing innovative thinking, which I believe I found in Franklin (2005).  "Exploratory experimentation—experimentation that is not guided by hypothesis (or theory…)—has a broader and more systematic role in scientific inquiry than is commonly recognized" (p. 888).  Franklin (2005) suggested that with "'wide', also known as 'high-throughput', instruments (those which allow the simultaneous measure of many features of an experimental system) for exploratory experimentation is more productive than it is otherwise" (p. 888).  Franklin (2005) shared an intriguing opinion from a 2002 writer: "in the high through-put world, we can perform thousands of experiments at once, provide millions of possible answers and then start asking questions" (p. 889).

Franklin (2005) believes it possible that "theory-directed experimentation is more efficient than exploratory experiments for those using narrow instrumentation" (p. 897).  If more efficiency is found to be true, "the efficiency of theory-directed inquiry, rather than the logic of falsification or confirmation, is the best explanation for the ubiquity of theory-directed experimentation in scientific practice" (p. 897).

Many times researchers have stated that alternative, more enterprising research methods are not conducted due to a realization that time and expense of such methods was not feasible.  However, Franklin (2005) suggests that if experimentalists had the availability of computing technologies to examine data, more learning would be possible from experiments than that by "narrow experimentalists" (p. 898).  A curiousity arises that since Franklin's (2005) piece was published seven years ago, perhaps later researchers have written and supported Franklin's (2005) suggestions.

Franklin (2005) also suggested that experimentalists "would be able to investigate connections that the narrow-experimentalist would not consider asking about for fear of wasting time and yielding a negative result" (p. 898).  Franklin (2005) ends by asking, "might wide instrumentation be productively used to carry out theory-directed experiments?" (p. 898).  Reviewing such accounts inspire this learner-researcher to keep an open mind. 

References:

Franklin, L.R. (2005, December). Exploratory experiments. Philosophy of Science, 72, 888 – 899. Retrieved from http://www.experimentalmath.info/papers/franklin-expm.pdf

Lelouche, R. (2006, April 23). Exploratory and experimental learning...for teachers and researchers too! Retrieved from http://hal.inria.fr/docs/00/12/37/31/PDF/ArtFinal_CELDA_05.pdf

MBA Knowledge Base. (2012). Exploratory research and its methods. Retrieved from http://www.mbaknol.com/research-methodology/exploratory-research-and-its-methods/

Adult Learning Principles: Knowles

Abstract

One of the adult learning theorists, Knowles, provides online andragogical instructors an opportunity to model instruction that gains adult students effective learning.  Appraising Knowles' six learning principles allows in depth analysis usable toward creating guidelines and techniques that instructors and course designers require for a course's structure, delivery, and mentoring design.  Valuable insight is possible by including a review of the benefits gained if Knowles' learning principles are employed.  Foregoing an appraisal of the quality assurance issues would be unwise for the practitioner who embraces a responsibility for successful learning outcomes. 

Introduction: Adult Learning Principles

Ota, DiCarlo, Burts, Laird, & Gioe (2006) recommended that instructors seriously consider blending Knowles' six adult learning theories if substantial learning is the objective.  Each learner will learn best if assessed individually: the appropriate degree of teaching uses learning theory strategies designed for the learner.  Understanding the six learning theory assumptions in andragogy prepares facilitators with an opportunity to provide successful learning outcomes (Ota et al., 2006).  Fully understanding the implications that the adult learning theories elicit requires developing guidelines and techniques relative to the structure, delivery, and mentoring of an online course.  Although the guidelines and techniques are typically blended when teaching online adults, each learning theory is singularly presented.  Also reviewed are the benefits of adapting the adult learning theories, and quality assurance principles.

Andragogical Learning Principle Number One

Ota, DiCarlo, Burts, Laird, Gioe (2006) wrote that adult learners have a Need to Know.  When applied, adults will know prior to the learning event the reason they need to learn something.  Knowing occurs if the instructor aids the learner in becoming aware of the learning need, and demonstrates to the learner the value in the learning need.

Guidelines for the Structure of an Online Course. 

Fidishun (n.d.) wrote that the Need  to Know theory is applied if learners participate in activities that encourage "reflection on what they expect to learn, how they might use it in the future or how it will help them to meet their goals" (par. 5).  Structuring an online course requires an appraisal of activities that scholars have tested, which support reflection and goal attainment.  For example, learning portfolios used throughout a course and beyond aids learners in "uncovering gaps in knowledge and skills that form the basis of learning goals" (Collins, 2009, par. 22).

Guidelines for the Delivery of an Online Course. 

Integrating learners' early reflections, and requesting learners to provide feedback for each activity supports learners' goal quests (Fidishun, n.d.).  As the instructor monitors the processes occurring within the integration of reflecting, and reviews feedback, the potential for successful learning increases as the instructor makes technology revisions or assigns individualized lessons.

Guidelines for Mentoring the Delivery of an Online Course. 

Mentors "help protégés set out goals and learning objectives from the outset.  Together, mentors and protégés assess the progress protégés are making toward meeting those goals" (Sherman, Voight, Tibbetts, Dobbins, Evans, & Weidler, 2000, p. 5).  Mentors who guide but do not direct or spell out the learner's identification and writing of goals support self-directed learning.

Techniques for Using the Structure of an Online Course. 

Instructors can designate a time within the course for learners to reflect upon their online learning processes and progress. Students should receive leeway to discuss "new roles, plan action strategies and exchange knowledge and skills for effective and efficient online learning" (Cercone, 2008, p. 159). Learners "benefit from the use of think logs, reflective journals, and group discussions within a cooperative learning setting" (Cercone, 2008, p. 159).

Techniques for Delivering an Online Course. 

Instructors can devise assignment activities that support the learners' ability to speak about and apply real-life situations or events using the activities.  Sharing such phenomenon provides new opportunities for learners to solve  problems in groups and develop online relationships.  Activities should also be closely targeted to the learners' maturity levels (Cercone, 2008).

Techniques for Mentoring the Delivery of an Online Course. 

Instructors facilitate learning by providing encouragement, resources, and other supports to learners as they increase their knowledge and work together to resolve problems (Sherman, Voight, Tibbetts, Dobbins, Evans, & Weidler, 2000).  Instructors transitioning freely between the pedagogical and andragogical philosophies are more effective in online classroom settings because a "linear mode of  teaching (either solely andragogical or solely pedagogical) can be detrimental in helping adults learn" (Wang & Kania-Gosche, 2011, p. 75).  The pedagogicaly-based "helping relationship…and the directing relationship (pedagogical philosophy) of adult learning professionals either facilitate or inhibit critical reflection of adult learners" (Wang & Kania-Gosche, 2011, p. 75).  Such facilitation or inhibition, which affects learners' ability to critically reflect, "occurs because these two relationships determine either the andragogical methods/styles or the pedagogical methods/styles" (Wang & Kania-Gosche, 2011, p. 75).

Benefit of Adapting the Need to Know Theory. 

As the instructor inputs revisions of technologies or designates individualized lessons, the potential for successful learning increases (Collins, 2009).  Collins (2009) wrote that such changes provide learners with important new skills.  For example, learners gain an ability to "critically analyze and reflect on their situations; diagnose their learning needs with specific reference to competencies they have helped identify; and formulate socially and personally relevant learning goals" (Collins, 2009, par. 18).

Andragogical Learning Principle Number Two

Ota, DiCarlo, Burts, Laird, & Gioe (2006) explained the second adult learning theory known as  the Learners' Self-Concept.  Adults conceive that they are inherently responsible for their existence, and want to be seen and treated as capable and self-directed (Ota et al., 2006).  Instructors support the learner's self-concept by aiding adults in developing self-directed learning skills.

Guidelines for the Structure of an Online Course. 

Fidishun (n.d.) wrote that designers of technology-based adult learning programs should "use all of the capabilities of the technology including branching, the ability to skip sections a student already understands, and multiple forms of presentation of material which can assist people with various learning styles" (par. 5). By designing components of online course software to permit learners to self-direct learning, actual learning is customized to the learner's needs.   For learners still transitioning into a self-directed style or who are new to self-directed learning, software designers should also compensate sufficiently for these learners by providing a structure that promotes the transition (Fidishun, n.d.).  For these learners, the instructor can facilitate self-direction by "giving them short, directed, concrete online tasks that provide the most learning for the experience to make these adults see the relevancy of online learning" (Fidishun, n.d., par. 5).

Guidelines for the Delivery of an Online Course. 

Fidishun (n.d.) wrote that non-linear web-based learning provides learners with the ability to gain new knowledge customized to their needs.  However, some learners motivated to take an online course may still not be able to or want to self-direct their own learning.  To compensate for this characteristic, instructors  can provide as much additional contact to such students during the class' beginning stages or provide a traditional setting that uses technology-based learning modules to gain learner comfort with self-direction (Fidishun, n.d., par. 5).

Guidelines for Mentoring the Delivery of an Online Course. 

Mentors need to be proficient in monitoring students' abilities at least until the learner demonstrates the required appropriate results.  Especially at the beginning of a course, mentors should carefully monitor each student, and provide rapid feedback and materials to guide learners in the manner that they need.

Techniques for Using the Structure of an Online Course.

The online classroom should support a climate for learning by structuring e-tools usable for mutual planning, forming learning objectives with peers and the instructor, assessing learning needs, and so forth (Educational Services and Planning San Mateo County Community College District, 2011). The learning management system should provide capabilities for online e-mailing within the classroom portal, a classroom discussion forum, and private communications with the instructor.  Providing rapid feedback to learners should provide easy access to messages, and an ability to respond.

Techniques for Delivering an Online Course. 

The instructor should encourage learners to frequently post responses to questions, timely read other students' comments, and respond to classmates using e-tools that enable threaded discussions.  Learners should be asked to share their learning progress with others, and read and respond to submitted work.  Online debates, multidimensional projects, and activities suggested by learners promotes interactivity. Allowing learners sufficient time to work through conflict rather than directing an outcome is helpful in motivating self-directed learning (Cercone, 2008).

Techniques for Mentoring the Delivery of an Online Course.

"Facilitate learning by encouraging protégés to build their own knowledge while providing resources and other supports…(to help) in working through problems" (Sherman, Voight, Tibbetts, Dobbins, Evans, & Weidler, 2000, p. 5).  As instructors provide feedback to learners so that learners perceive they are being treated as capable and self-directed (Ota et al., 2006), a learner's self-concept will grow.  Instructors need to realize when and how much support the learner needs to develop self-directing skills, and design lessons and feedback appropriately.

Benefit of Adapting the Learners' Self-Concept Theory. 

When permitting students to follow a learning path that most appropriately suits them, a self-directing aptitude increases.  Learners boost their ability to design and learn the information most relevant to their needs.

Andragogical Learning Principle Three

The Role of the Learners' Experiences in adult learning addresses that every adult has a group of elements in their past, which collectively affects their repertoire (Ota, DiCarlo, Burts, Laird, & Gioe, 2006).  "There are individual differences in background, learning style, motivation, needs, interests, and goals" (Ota et al., 2006, par. 4).  Learning events should be designed to draw out such differences so sharing experiences with peers can result in new learning.

Guidelines for the Structure of an Online Course. 

Fidishun (n.d.) wrote that "adults have had a lifetime of experiences, (which) makes adult learners more heterogeneous than younger learners and also provides an additional base of knowledge that can and should be used in the classroom or technology-based learning experience" (par. 10).  Online adult learners desire to  make use of what they know, and gain acknowledgement for that knowledge.  Consequently, technology-based instruction must "include opportunities for learners to use their knowledge and experience" (Fidishun, n.d., par. 10). 

Guidelines for the Delivery of an Online Course. 

Providing learning experiences can include "discussions, simulations, problem-solving activities, or case methods" (Ota, 2006, par. 4).  Online delivery must include specific information about each learning activity but not provide so much direction that learners are prohibited from creativity.  If some learners need further direction, the instructor is easily able to provide that when a learner indicates difficulty in understanding.

Guidelines for Mentoring the Delivery of an Online Course.

Applying this theory requires that instructors use teaching strategies that enable adults to tap into their experiences, which consequently increases the adult learner's motivation toward individualized learning.  Instructors should design appropriate learning activities in order to promote learners' desire to share sometimes troubling information yet maintain a sense of security for proprietary details. 

Techniques for Using the Structure of an Online Course.
 
"Case studies, reflective activities, group projects that call upon the expertise of group members and lab experiments are examples of the type of learning activities which will facilitate the use of learners’ already acquired expertise" (Fidishun, n.d., par. 10).  Experiences that adults bring with them also extends insight about who the learner has become as a result of their experiences.  "Self-identity including habits and biases are determined from their experience" (Fidishun, n.d., par. 10).  Technology-based instruction for adults should provide opportunities for reflection.  "Reflective learning involves assessment or reassessment of assumptions” and “reflective learning becomes transformative whenever assumptions or premises are found to be distorting, inauthentic or otherwise invalid” (Fidishun, n.d., par. 10). 

Techniques for Delivering an Online Course. 

Reflective learning activities help learners to reflect upon and understand their biases and habits, and consequently transition them in the direction of new understanding about self.  "Using web-based or other technologies to have students reflect on learning activitiesor to put themselves in a different character in a case study or scenario may cause adults to reevaluate already learned information or patterns" (Fidishun, n.d., par. 10).  Cercone (2008) recommends doing a needs assessment as well as a student self-assessment before the online class begins.  The instructor should also communicate the results to the class.  Instructors and learners alike should recognize that one's experiences are valuable.  Activities should enable learners to use their knowledge and experience, and learners should be informed about why the topic important.  Instructors should also provide "practical information with examples, link new topics to what has been discussed or read, and open the class with introductions that include personal and professional backgrounds (Cercone, 2008, p. 157).

Techniques for Mentoring the Delivery of an Online Course. 

"Facilitate learning by encouraging protégés to build their own knowledge while providing resources and other supports" (Sherman, Voight, Tibbetts, Dobbins, Evans, & Weidler, 2000, p. 5). Learners should receive support while working through their problems.  Instructors can use e-tools to help learners build new information that originates from past experiences and previous knowledge (Sherman et al., 2000). Some strategies include "observations, portfolios,  journals, and videotapes" (Sherman et al., 2000).
 
Benefit of Adapting the Role of Learners' Experiences Theory. 

"A key element of experience-based learning is that learners analyze their experience by reflecting, evaluating and reconstructing it (sometimes individually, sometimes collectively, sometimes both) in order to draw meaning (and further action) from it in the light of prior experience" (Andresen, Boud & Cohen, n.d., p. 1).  While reflection about experiences can stimulate a learner to develop more openness relative to new experiences, social benefits also exist.  For example, learners' reflections can motivate "critical social action and a stance embodying moral accountability and socio-political responsibility" (Andresen et al., n.d., p. 9).

Andragogical Learning Principle Number Four

Ota, DiCarlo, Burts, Laird, & Gioe (2006) discussed the fourth learning theory known as a Readiness to Learn.  This theory defines that as adults strive to manage current actual life events, they raise to the stage of becoming ready to learn in order to use new knowledge to address the events.  Learning is less effective when an activity is geared toward a future event (Ota et al., 2006).

Guidelines for the Structure of an Online Course. 

Fidishun (n.d.) wrote that "adults become ready to learn something when, as Knowles explained, “they experience a need to learn it in order to cope more satisfyingly with real-life tasks or problems” (par. 12).  Learning opportunities in technology-based instruction should provide activities that refer to the needs and goals of learners.  Designing experiences that simulate an experience wherein a learner needs new knowledge or skill encourages students' readiness to learn (Fidishun, n.d.).

Guidelines for the Delivery of an Online Course. 

Learners need to have four characteristics to learn effectively: (1) a disposition for learning, (2) adequate cognitive functioning, (3) an adequate knowledge base for the content being presented, and (4) adequate study skills and strategies (Wood, 2007, par. 7).  Cercone (2008) wrote that "adult students are goal oriented; thus, objectives and goals should be outlined early in a course" (p. 45).  Organizing online learning events should appeal to learners' goals, and be applicable to the learners' work or home (Cercone, 2008). 

Techniques for Using the Structure of an Online Course.

Cercone (2008) wrote that activities that help learners to relate to real situations, provide opportunities for solving problems in group settings, ensure that learners' maturity levels are reflected in assignments, and enable learners to work on assignments that apply to their life and work experiences all improve a student's readiness to learn.  Many online learning tools are available that can accommodate all of the previously mentioned activities. 

Techniques for Delivering an Online Course. 

Morland and Bivens (2004) wrote that aiding learners to become more readily able to learn requires online materials that should "minimize the need for the learner to scroll through text, printed instructional article should not exceed three pages, and graphics, diagrams, or pictures should be used only when they lend meaning and clarification to the topic" (p. 3).   Instructors should provide navigation capabilities that offer article or interactive exercise links.  Hyperlinks should be set up for "key words, phrases, and/or concepts within the instructional article to some type of glossary or reference that provides definitions and additional clarification as needed by the learner" (Morland & Bivens, 2004, p. 3).

Techniques for Mentoring the Delivery of an Online Course. 

Monitoring learners' development, and helping learners to be more able to achieve new accomplishments, provides feedback to the mentor so that interventional activities can be devised (Darling-Hammond, Orcutt, & Cheung, n.d., p.35).  Mentors need to ask questions, assess completed work, and conduct one-on-one sessions with learners, which can help the mentor to decide the level and type of support the learner needs (Darling-Hammond et al., n.d.).

Benefit of Adapting the Readiness to Learn Theory.

By providing positive feedback to students about their "areas of competence and opportunities to take on responsibility successfully are extremely important.  A developmentally healthy environment will support ways in which cognitive reasoning develops with healthy identity development and moral reasoning about how to support and care for others" (Darling-Hammond, Orcutt, & Cheung, n.d., p. 38).

Andragogical Learning Principle Number Five

The fifth learning theory presented by Ota, DiCarlo, Burts, Laird, & Gioe (2006), which is known as Orientation to Learning.  Adults are learning oriented relative to tasks and problems, and desire learning that will improve their effectiveness when faced with everyday tasks and problems (Ota et al., 2006).
 
Guidelines for the Structure of an Online Course. 

Fidishun (n.d.) wrote that adults are life, task or problem-centered in their orientation to learning.  They want to see how what they are learning will apply to their life, a task they need to perform, or to solving a problem.  Technology-based instruction will be more effective if it uses real-life examples or situations that adult learners may encounter in their life or on the job (Fidishun, n.d.).

Guidelines for the Delivery of an Online Course. 

Allowing flexibility in the design of a lesson will permit student input on issues that need to be addressed in a class" (Fidishun, n.d.).  If students can bring real-life examples of school discipline challenges to a chat session in an online course on behavior management they will be anxious to participate and gain the practical experience which will help them to do better at their job (par. 13).

Guidelines for Mentoring the Delivery of an Online Course. 

Orientation to learning is guided by the mentor or instructor. Cercone (2008) wrote that instructors should ensure that students write their course goals in the beginning of the course so they can relate the course goals with their current needs and issues.

Techniques for Using the Structure of an Online Course. 

The Orientation to Learning theory appeals to an online format.  For example, as class members provide input in the class forum, classmates begin to jointly bridge relationships, and can focus on strengths and weaknesses of classmates.  Providing an online class forum link to the list of best practices helps students to understand how they are doing when compared to others especially as discussions expand (Cercone, 2008).

Techniques for Delivering an Online Course. 

A good explanation should be provided to learners about how the course's information is of value to them.  Cercone (2008) wrote that building in a good level of flexibility so learners and the entire class can provide input should be provided.  Providing a list of best practices to learners helps students to understand how they are doing when compared to others.  Maintaining consistent guidelines throughout the course is very important.  Triggering internal motivation is encouraged when learners diagnose their own needs. (Cercone, 2008).

Techniques for Mentoring the Delivery of an Online Course.

"Focus on what is important to protégés’ work environment to help protégés improve practices" (Sherman, Voight, Tibbetts, Dobbins, Evans, & Weidler, 2000, p. 5).  Providing sufficient information upfront to learners supports an Orientation to Learning as all facets of the course are explained, questions are asked, and answers supplied.

Benefit of Adapting the Orientation to Learning Theory. 

Fidishun (n.d.) explained that learners have a strong motivation to perceive that the content being learned applies to their life.  As learners' orientation to learning grows, performing tasks or solving a problem become easier.  Furthermore, using real-life examples during technology-based instruction provides exposure to many others' real-life situations.

Andragogical Learning Principle Number Six

The sixth learning theory, Motivation, explains that adults' internal inspirations rather than external are much more compelling (Ota, DiCarlo, Burts, Laird, & Gioe (2006). If teaching foregoes this theory, an adult's level of motivation for learning can be reduced dramatically.

Guidelines for the Structure of an Online Course.

Fidishun (n.d.) wrote that "while adult learners may respond to external motivators, internal priorities are more important.  Incentives such as increased job satisfaction, self-esteem and quality of life are important in giving adults a reason to learn" (par. 14).  As learners' contribute to lesson development or choose when topics are presented, learners begin to take on ownership for their learning processes. 

Guidelines for the Delivery of an Online Course. 

Learners will respond more positively when the above characteristics are provided via technology-based instruction.  Designing activities that support the growth of learners' self-esteem or create a growing sense of accomplishment motivate learners.  Autonomy in deploying self or group-designed activities also accomplishes increased motivation.

Guidelines for Mentoring the Delivery of an Online Course.

Adults are internally motivated and self-directed.  Adult learners resist learning when they feel others are imposing information, ideas or actions on them (Fidishun, 2000).  The Queensland Occupational Therapy Fieldwork Collaborative (2007) reported that mentors can establish a "graded learning program that moves from more to less structure, from less to more responsibility and from more to less direct supervision, at an appropriate pace that is challenging yet not overloading for the student" (par. 7).  Mentors should create online projects or tasks for learners that appeal to the students' interests. 

Techniques for Using the Structure of an Online Course. 

Instructors should design activities that encourage the use of resources such as a school's e-library, the internet, and other e-tools.  The online syllabus should explicitly detail the learning objectives, course goals, and student expectations for the course (Callahan, 2010).  Explicitly communicate to the students what they need to do to be successful in the class and achieve personal goals (Callahan, 2010).

Techniques for Delivering an Online Course. 

Setting the tone early in an online course can be achieved by using class surveys to determine existing knowledge (Calahan, 2010). Varying teaching methods to gain more student participation, and providing immediate feedback encourages learners.  "Incorporating problem-based learning, collaborative learning, experiments, and the use of technology such as clickers, allows for greater student interaction and the opportunity for students to practice newly acquired skills and knowledge" (Callahan, 2010, par. 5).  By supplementing course information with online webcasts, podcasts, or other e-tools, learners become more inspired by using other technologies.

Techniques for Mentoring the Delivery of an Online Course. 

Facilitating learners' activities to become more self-directed, and carry a higher level of responsibility supports learners' internal motivation to learn (Queensland Occupational Therapy Fieldwork Collaborative, 2007).  Instructors can also take advantage of developing rapport with the learners, which can maximize approachability to the instructor.  Encouraging learners to ask questions, and explore new concepts supports the development of learner motivation (Queensland Occupational Therapy Fieldwork Collaborative, 2007).  Before providing information to learners, encourage them to ask more questions of themselves and their peers.  Acknowledging goal completion additionally provides motivation to learners as milestones are reached.

Benefit of Adapting the Motivation Theory.

Callahan (2010) wrote that "students display greater enthusiasm and interest for a course if they can relate the content and course activities to their daily lives" (par. 11).  Learners' gain deeper understanding of the course materials, and learners are better able to grasp the value of what is being learned when the course materials are connected to real-world experiences or their educational goals (Callahan, 2010).

Quality Assurance Guidelines

An online adult learning program is not replete if Quality Assurance (QA) guidelines have not been considered.  Due to the importance of this topic, details concerning the design and implementation of a quality assurance process is included.  More importantly, the checklist also presents guidance for online instructors who wish to ensure that their instructional activities provide every online adult student with learning that combines all six learning theories yet additionally is customized to each learner.  Dayton and Vaughn (2007) presented the following QA guidelines:

1.  Seek a consensual definition of quality in online instruction by delineating a set of high-level principles, all or most of which also describe aspects of quality in any kind of university course. 

2.  Build a flexible QA checklist based on the adopted principles: for each principle, compose imperative statements describing general characteristics of course design or teaching. Under each of these ideal characteristics, list examples of observable discrete elements of a course design or online teaching activity.

3.  Promote the QA checklist as good-practice guidelines for faculty to use in designing new or revising existing courses.

4.  Use the QA checklist to create a rubric for peer evaluation of courses (formative) or summative evaluation by a non-peer specialist in online instruction; summative evaluations should still emphasize constructive suggestions and the discretion of the individual instructor.

5.  Use the QA checklist as a touchstone for the redesign of student questionnaires used to evaluate online courses and instructors.  (p. 480).

Appendix A was also included from Dayton and Vaughn (2007) due to its extensiveness in providing and ensuring excellence when designing online courses.

Conclusion

Embracing a program to instruct adults online should carry no greater objective than to allow learners to adapt learning materials to concentrate upon what learning is needed, and that  particularly avoids duplicating knowledge already learned.  While applying learning theories is the goal of most institutions and instructors, learning content should not be required solely because accreditation requirements carry the greatest motivation to program planning.  Ramping up creatively to offer curriculum content that promises the most learning that is needed by each learner equates to world-scale learning, and provides graduates who will have the tools needed to effectively change global problems. 

Consequently, the design of technology-based adult learning programs at the least must become much more interactive, learner-centered, and self-directed by those most interested in learning—the student.  Missed learning opportunities can then result in learning opportunities as yet unachieved: no greater travesty exists than when learners feel unchallenged because they were not empowered to manage their own learning.

References:

Andresen, L., Boud, D., & Cohen, R. (n.d.). Experience-based learning: Contemporary issues.
Retrieved from http://complexworld.pbworks.com/f/Experience-based%2520learning.pdf

Arsham, H. (2002, March). Impact of the internet on learning and teaching. United States Distance Learning Association, 16(3). Retrieved from http://www.usdla.org/html/journal/
MAR02_Issue/article01.html

Callahan, M. (2010). How do I motivate my students? Retrieved from http://www.tlpd.ttu.
edu/teach/TLTC%20Teaching%20Resources/MotivateStudents.asp

Cercone, K. (2008). Characteristics of adult learners with implications for online learning design.  AACE Journal, 16(2), 137-159. Retrieved from http://training.gaincc.org/pluginfile.php/1014/mod_resource/content/0/adult_learners_online.pdf

Collins, J. (2009, March). Lifelong learning in the 21st century and beyond. RadioGraphics, 29, 613-622. Retrieved from http://radiographics.rsna.org/content/29/2/613.full

Darling-Hammond, L., Orcutt, S., & Cheung, M. (n.d.). Learning as we grow: Development and learning. Retrieved from http://www.learner.org/courses/learningclassroom/
support/02_dev_print.pdf

Dayton, D., & Vaughn, M.M. (2007, November). Developing a quality assurance process to
guide the design and assessment of online courses. Technical Communication, 54(4),
475-489.  Retrieved from http://www.towson.edu/blackboard/ISD/supportdocs/dayton_online_teaching_TCnov07.pdf

DiCarlo, C.F., Burts, D.C., Laird, R., & Gioe, C. (2006, December). Training and the
needs of adult learners. Journal of Extension, 44(6). Retrieved from http://www.joe.org/joe/2006december/tt5.php

Educational Services and Planning San Mateo County Community College District. (2011). Learning theories related to distance learning. Retrieved from http://ctlonline.net/websavvy/
learntheory.html

Fidishun, D. (n.d.). Andragogy and technology: Integrating adult learning theory as we teach with technology. Retrieved from http://frank.mtsu.edu/~itconf/proceed00/fidishun.htmOta.

Morland, D.V., & Bivens, H. (2004). Designing instructional articles in online courses for adult learners. Innovate, 1(2). Retrieved from http://innovateonline.info/pdf/vol1_issue2/Designing_Instructional_Articles_in_Online_Courses_for_Adult_Learners.pdf

Queensland Occupational Therapy Fieldwork Collaborative. (2007). Adult learning theory and principles: Become familiar with adult learning theory and the six principles of adult learning.Retrieved from http://www.qotfc.edu.au/resource/index.html?page=65375

Sherman, R., Voight, J., Tibbetts, J., Dobbins, D., Evans, A., & Weidler, D. (2000, April).  Adult educators’ guide to designing instructor mentoring. Retrieved from http://www.calpro-online.org/pubs/Mentoring%20Guide.pdf

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Learning%20Readiness.pdf

Appendix A: Quality Assurance Checklist For Online Courses

1. In what ways does the online course design encourage contact between the students and the instructor?
Use a variety of communication techniques to connect with students:
_ Personalize communications with students
_ Know students by name by the end of the first two weeks of class, and use it in chats and emails
_ Provide a picture of yourself
_ Plan for increased time for student interactions compared with traditional courses
_ Provide feedback to students in a manner that is non-threatening and constructive
_ Give negative comments to students privately
_ Have question/answer session periodically throughout “class”
_ Make summary remarks available in discussion for all students
_ Serve as mentor or informal advisor to students
Provide clear guidelines for interaction with students:
_ Set clear standards for instructors’ timelines for responding to messages
_ Provide appropriate instructor contact information
_ Establish policies describing the types of communication that should take place over different channels
_ Include a schedule of chat times
Use online course features to encourage communication:
_ Use real time features such as chat rooms and whiteboards
_ Use asynchronous tools such as discussion boards and e-mail
_ Maintain separate e-mail account for web courses
_ Forward responses to frequently asked questions to all students to avoid duplication and ensure consistency of responses
_ Provide telephone access as necessary
_ Consider conducting a teleconference during and at the end of the course to discuss successes and problems

2. How does the learning environment foster reciprocity and cooperation among students?
Formalize expectations for discussions:
Establish and publish a discussion tool protocol that explains why tools are being used, what students are expected to do and how they will be evaluated
Provide the tools for student interaction:
_ Organize Web site to enable student interaction with the content, other students and instructor
_ Provide discussion forums encouraging open and honest dialog
_ Set up teams of students to interact via discussion boards and e-mail
_ Encourage students to hold virtual study sessions via chat or bulletin boards
Facilitate student interactions:
_ Include “warm up” period with light-hearted exercises aimed to help students get to know each other
_ Allow students to introduce themselves
_ Ask students to share backgrounds and interests
_ Ask students to publish online bios and/or photos to allow other members of the class to visualize them
Encourage group collaboration:
_ Create social interaction through group collaboration to facilitate high achievement
_ Encourage problem solving in groups via discussion board or e-mail
_ Create learning communities, study groups, or project groups within the class
_ Encourage students to work in groups using problem-solving activities to develop topic
understanding
_ Post papers, etc. so that students can respond to others’ work

3. In what ways is active involvement of the students facilitated throughout the course?
Provide opportunities for students to discuss the course material:
_ Actively involve students through writing and interaction
_ Provide opportunities for students to articulate and revise their thinking to insure accuracy of knowledge construction
_ Devise assignments to encourage students to employ critical thinking strategies
_ Encourage students to “talk” about what they are learning via discussion boards
_ Craft questions to foster discussion and understanding
_ Assign students to present work to the class via bulletin board postings, chat, presentations
Provide content that enables critical analysis and reflection:
_ Make content available to students in manageable segments
_ Assure that content is easily navigated
_ Make use of ancillary resources available as part of the course content
_ Provide internal communication tools for students to elaborate on course content
_ Provide content that adds value in addition to questions
_ Connect chats to modules, textbook, course content, and assignments
Have students record observations and self-assessments:
_ Provide students with ample opportunity for self-assessment
_ Require students to keep an observation/reflection journal
Use real-world data or situations in assignments:
_ Present problem-solving situations in a realistic context
_ Give assignments that provide students ample opportunity to practice and apply concepts and skills in realistic and relevant ways
_ Use real world experiences in teaching content to make subject matter more relevant
_ Ask students to relate outside events or work experiences to the subjects covered
_ Give students concrete, real world situations to analyze
_ Use simulations or labs in class

4. How are students given prompt feedback for learning activities?
Set expectations in writing:
_ Provide clearly defined statements informing students what to expect in terms of instructor response time
_ Have students agree on expectations regarding times for student assignment completion and faculty response
Provide prompt feedback on assignments:
_ Return assignments with comments quickly – within the stated period of time
_ Provide weekly guidance to the class
_ Make sure comments on student work are constructive
_ Grade assignments consistent with criteria set forth in the syllabus/module
_ Give students detailed feedback on performance early in term
_ Contact students who miss a chat
_ Provide both information feedback and acknowledgment feedback. Information feedback provides
information or evaluation.  Acknowledgment feedback confirms that some event has occurred
Use quizzes and tests for feedback:
_ Use built in, auto-graded quiz feature when appropriate
_ Give proctored examinations or other assessments
_ Tie quizzes and tests to course objectives
_ Prepare classroom exercises and problems that give students immediate feedback on performance
(self tests, for example)
Provide quick feedback in both synchronous and asynchronous settings:
_ Provide students with continuous feedback and frequent support via e-mail, chat, and discussion postings
_ Take an active role in moderating discussions, providing feedback, and participating in other
interactive components

5.  Is the course organized so that students and the instructor use their time efficiently and
effectively while focusing on the learning objectives?
Communicate time requirements clearly:
_ State time-achievement expectations at the beginning of class
_ Clearly state expectations defining minimal levels of student participation
_ Establish clear goals and communicate these to students
_ Set specific expectations for students with respect to a minimum amount of time per week for study and homework assignments
_ Clearly communicate to students the amount of time they should spend preparing for class
_ Make it clear to students the amount of time needed to understand complex material
_ Recognize that online courses need deadlines
Manage course time effectively:
_ Emphasize the importance of good study skills throughout course
_ Use TA to help with tasks, or assign some course tasks to students
_ Identify which key concepts (and methods of teaching them) can be covered in the amount of time available
_ Create interactive learning environment, but do not overwhelm students (or instructor) if interaction is too time consuming
_ Give students adequate time for completing assignments
_ Consider both in class and out of class time requirements
_ Underscore the importance of regular work, steady application, sound self pacing, and scheduling

6. How does the course design communicate high expectations?
Provide clear and detailed written guidance on expectations in the syllabus:
_ Clearly delineate institutional policy on cheating and plagiarism at start of course
_ Write objectives at the appropriate level of Bloom’s taxonomy
_ Present objectives clearly to students as part of the syllabus and learning module, if applicable
_ Explain group member roles and guidelines, and protocols if group does not function properly
_ Provide a guide to overall class structure
_ Provide a guide to appropriate tone and persona
_ Provide weights and values of graded components of course
_ Explain grading criteria clearly
_ Communicate how the integrity of student work in assignments and exams is assured
_ Clearly define expectations for participation
_ Provide course objective and learning outcomes for the course in a clearly written, straightforward statement
_ Tell students that you expect them to work hard
Ensure that content and assignments are challenging:
_ Assure that content and requirements are as demanding as a face-to-face course with identical or similar content
_ Explicitly communicate expectations, including deliverables
_ Provide corrective feedback on assignments
_ Help students set challenging goals for their own learning
_ Provide lists of suggested extra reading that support key points
Reward excellence publicly:
_ Provide examples of past students’ projects, papers, etc. for students to refer to
_ Celebrate in class successes—name students or group
_ Challenging tasks, sample cases and praise for quality work communicate high expectations
_ Publicly call attention to excellent performance by students

7. How will the learning environment be structured to accommodate diverse talents and
ways of learning?
Provide means for students to ask for and receive assistance in understanding course materials
_ Students seek assistance in understanding and mastering different learning strategies
_ Encourage students to ask questions when they don’t understand
_ Provide extra material or exercises for students who lack essential background, knowledge, or skills
Consider assessing students’ learning styles in the beginning of the course:
_ Find out about students’ backgrounds, learning styles, interests at the beginning of the semester
_ Give a Myers-Briggs type learning style assessment in the beginning of class
Be mindful of accessibility issues:
_ Provide equal access to the shared conversation in the course
_ Address accessibility issues: presentation of course materials complies with web accessibility standards as outlined by such entities as W3C, BOBBY, IDEA, ADA, WebAIM, the National Organization on Disability
Create a welcoming, safe, nurturing online environment:
_ Ensure that an equitable environment exists for gender differences in learning styles, reduction of barriers to participation and communication
_ Include cooperative and collaborative learning to distribute workload through group and support female students’ preferred method of connected learning
_ Promote gender equality by encouraging females to post messages while asking males to subside if a pattern of male domination is noticed
_ Discourage snide remarks, sarcasm, kidding, and so forth, in chats
Provide course content in a logical, consistent manner:
_ Present course content in a manner that hierarchically structures the sequence of information
_ Establish and maintain a consistent style for the course materials
_ Content is presented in a logical progression
_ Explain theory from a practical approach first, then add the structural approach
_ Design with a consistent structure, easily discernible to students of varying learning styles
Incorporate a variety of techniques for presenting course material:
_ Provide a variety of communication techniques for students to use to enhance online learning
_ Provide opportunities to collaboratively construct knowledge based on multiple perspectives,
discussion, and reflection
_ Enhance content by the use of affiliated tools such as discussion, links, notes, quizzes, audio, video, self tests, etc.
_ Use visual and auditory stimuli to motivate students and address different learning styles
_ Vary types of interaction
_ Present and engage materials in a variety of ways
_ Balance activities for all styles: books, hands on, visual, etc.
_ Use diverse teaching activities to address a broad spectrum of students