Abstract
Motivational influencers affecting adult online learners are complex, and sometimes obscure especially considering that every adult’s quality of learning is individual, and impacted by experential effects. Furthermore, every adult uses a different learning theory. Accepting that instructional best practices, and andragogical (self-directed learning) principles are going to influence learning according to past results can cause an extraordinary level of disappointment for the instructor and adult learner. With online learning technologies rapidly changing, yesterday’s andragogical principles cannot be expected to motivate students to learn as expected by even the most expert online teacher. Instructors who fail to analyze, adapt, implement, and reflect upon the impact from e-tools can fail before they begin.
Motivation of the Adult Learner
Why is external motivation needed for an adult to learn? Is not an internal motivation to gain knowledge enough for an adult to achieve the intended learning? As Thompson and Deis (2004) explain, learning is an “iterative, dynamic process of change, dependent on the learner’s self-efficacy to take responsibility for his or her own learning” (p. 108). Self-motivaters can rapidly cause adults to become discouraged such as when learning progress is slower than the adult learner’s expectations, the instructor’s support does not provide the minimum required by the learner or unexpected personal and/or professional responsibilities intercede periodically, which impacts learning efficiency at differing degrees (Thompson and Deis, 2004). Supporting a good level of self-motivators is achieved by learning activities that include joint input from a facilitator and a learner using reflection and analysis, integrating new activities, and then repeating reflection and analysis (Thompson and Deis, 2004). Following below is an explanation of the andragogical principles, motivational concerns applicable to the andragogical principles, and andragogical principles’ implications for online design and delivery of adult learning.
Principles of Andragogy as a Learning Theory Explained
Thompson and Deis (2004) summarized Knowles’ principles of andragogy: adult learners’ perception of self-concept transposes from dependence to self-directed, experential knowledge increasingly contributes to a student’s learning resources, developmental tasks required for a learner’s social identity are grounded by the learner’s readiness to learn, and time orientation related to new knowledge application shifts from a “use-later” application to “need-to-use-now” application, which causes a transition of the learner’s orientation of subject-centeredness to the preferred problem-centeredness orientation. Motivational constraints arise as adults begin transitioning toward self-direction and a problem-centered orientation, begin applying experential knowledge to new learning, a learner’s readiness to learn becomes muffled, and timeliness for applying new knowledge degrades. These transitional elements affecting each learner at differing degrees must be addressed when designing and delivering online teaching if learning activities successfully adapt to the learner’s needs.
Motivational Concerns Applicable to Andragogical Principles
Thompson and Deis (2004) assert that assessments provide adults with an evaluative tool, which provides motivation, feedback, self-awareness, empowerment, and a “richer, deeper learning experience” (p. 110). Assessment supports another of the andragogical principles, which is that “developmental tasks required for a learner’s social identity are grounded by the learner’s readiness to learn” (Thompson and Deis, 2004, p. 108). If developmental tasks inclusive of assessment components are not included in the online adult learners’ curriculum, there is a very significant lost opportunity for motivating learning. Thompson and Deis (2004) wrote that the andragogical principle referring to the transition from theory to practice with a focus on problems rather than content explains that “successful education will relate theory to practice, and advocate bringing ‘real world’ opportunities into the classroom” (p. 109).
Clardy (2001) presented an alternative approach that “seeks to avoid the demotivating conditions of pedagogy and the denuded substance of andragogy through the use of (synergogical) self-directing learning teams” (p. 20), which use “highly participative, self-directed learning activities” (Clardy, 2001, p. 20). Clardy (2001) wrote that andragogical principles may provide increased motivation. However, improved motivation results in decreased “substantive content and learning…(and) implies a uniformity to adult learner needs and motivation that masks important individual differences between learners” (p. 20) as well as “imputes to adults more capability for and interest in self-directed learning than is likely” (p. 20).
Clardy’s (2001) analysis of the andragogical principle is based purely upon a review of Knowles’ and other literature rather than an empirical study. Clardy (2001) wrote that Knowles’ andragogical theory inadequately identified types of adult learning situations” (p. 31), is resplendent with “radical subjectivism” (p. 20), and suffers from a number of problems in explaining learning effectiveness for adults. Because improved motivation comes a decrease in “substantive content and learning” (Clardy, 2001, p. 20), Clardy (2001) suggests, and this writer agrees, that further study of the andragogical principles should be examined further. Whether labeled andragogy or synergogy, strategies to motivate adult learners should not contradict with learning principles that result in poorer learning as Clardy (2001) suggested.
Houde (2006) wrote that scholars increasingly propose that Knowles’ atheoretical andragogical principles, which are grounded by “observation and experience, rather than logical postulates and/or empirical research” (p. 90), and considered an “artifact from a mechanistic intellectual frame” (p. 90), be validated. Houde (2006) recommends that validation be accomplished by using two theories: “socioemotional selectivity (focusing on individuals’ relationship with time, goals and emotions), and the self-determination theory (a needs-based theory that proposes an inherent growth drive centering on…autonomy, competence and relatedness)” (p. 90). Houde (2006) explains that the andragogical principle relative to motivation assumes that adults’ external motivators consist of improved jobs, increased salaries, and so forth. Internal motivators include aspirations for enhanced job satisfaction, improved self-esteem, quality of life, and so forth. Houde’s (2006) article addresses the importance of validating the andragogical principle identified as motivation. By using the two theories noted above to identify and assess tools for motivating adult learners, instructors can integrate improved and well grounded teaching methods to gain advanced learning.
Andragogical Principles’ Implications for Online Design and Delivery of Adult Learning
“Superior andragogical learning conditions should motivate the learners to feel a need to learn” (Thompson and Deis, 2004, p. 108). Those learning conditions should enable “maximum flexibility and student self-governance” (Thompson and Deis, 2004, p. 108). Therefore, the design and delivery of online curriculums should provide opportunities to gain self-governance, which mirrors the andragogical principle that supports an adult learner’s self-concept transitioning from one of dependence to self-directed. Such an opportunity would enable learners to plan and process assignments without using mandated guidelines as to how the learning outcomes would be achieved. For example, “domain-oriented design environments…allow learners (who are) provided contextualized support to engage in their own problems, and exploit breakdowns as opportunities for learning” (EduTech Wiki, 2009, par. 3). The domain-oriented design allows learners to “create new artifacts and understand existing ones, they tailor instruction to serve the accomplishment of the task at hand, and they do this without disrupting or otherwise interfering with the task” (Fischer, n.d., par. 3).
Thompson and Deis (2004) indicated that another andragogical principle underscores a need for curriculums that “allow learners to rely on themselves as resources of learning” (p. 108). Instructors who automatically provide resources and internet links to learners with directions to integrate information from those resources to the assigned activities opposes one of the andragogical principles: learners should increasingly contribute experential knowledge to the learner’s portfolio of resources. Consequently, the design and delivery of e-learning should provide for use of the learner’s previous experiences and practical skills. For example, a case study presented on web pages, and discussed in conferencing groups, draws upon learners’ past experiences, designed to appeal to the learners’ interests and experiences, and ties into the learning concepts (Illinois Online Network, 2010).
Thompson and Deis (2004) advocated that “successful education relates theory to practice, and advocates bringing ‘real world’ opportunities into the classroom” (p. 109). The “real world” opportunities are provided to adult learners through “simulations, cases, technology, and collaborative learning opportunities between educational institutions and business” (p. 109). Any of these examples or a mix can be integrated into the online learning environment.
An article by Gibbons and Wentworth (2001) advises that e-tools using a discussion forum encourages critical thinking, and ties into “nontraditional learners’ current life tasks and problems” (par. 16). Non-traditional e-learning techniques and processes that support the development of self-motivation in the adult learner significantly influences academic achievement (Gibbons and Wentworth, 2001). Asynchronous discussion forums provide learners with more of an opportunity to reflect and revise before responding to peers.
A study by Cercone (2008) provides 13 recommendations for developing online courses based upon the andragogical principles. For example, an instructional design that supports learners’ active involvement in learning includes activities that require learners to formulate their learning objectives, and learn skills of inquiry, decision-making, and self-regulation. Embedding learning content within authentic context, requiring learners to create and problem-solve, periodically reflecting upon and revising learning goals, infusing conflicting theoretical resources into activities, requiring reflection about summarized experiences, and using learning contracts, case studies, and simulations to stimulate self-directed learning all aid in motivating adult learners (Cercone, 2008).
“Life is as much about determination as it is about motivation” (Pew, 2007, p. 22). Today’s instructors should approach teaching from “an informed, deliberate, strategic and tactical perspective (to) improve the educational setting for both educators and learners” (Pew, 2007, p. 22). Pew’s (2007) comment that “self-reliance is probably the most enduring source of motivation” (p. 23) efficiently describes that students able to rely upon themselves create their own elements of motivation. Deriving a sense of self-regulated power from internal sources is available to students or instructors in the form of internal motivation. The power merely needs plucking.
Conclusion
The remarks above address the motivational attributes relative to Knowles’ andragogical principles, and implications that the principles carry for online course design and delivery. Most significantly, online instruction must influence adult learners to evolve into self-directed learners able to infuse experiential influencers into new knowledge that is germane to their use-now applications. Gaining insight from adult online students who successfully demonstrate a higher level of evolvement as self-directed learners could provide instructors and instructional designers with invaluable information by using the learners’ perspectives.
References:
Cercone, K. (2008). Characteristics of adult learners with implications for online learning design. AACE Journal,16(2),137-159. Retrieved from http://training.gaincc.org/pluginfile.php/1014/mod_resource/content/0/adult_learners_online.pdf
Clardy, A. (2006). Andragogy: Adult learning and education at its best? Retrieved from http://grad.towson.edu/program/master/hurd-hrdg-ms/files/Andragogy%20Adult%20Learning.doc.
EduTech Wiki. (2009). Self-directed learning. Retrieved from http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/en/Self-directed_learning
Fischer, G. (n.d.). Learning opportunities provided by domain-oriented design environments. Retrieved from http://scholar.googleusercontent.com/scholar?q=cache:1jWoieMK2qYJ:scholar.google.com/&hl=en&as_sdt=0,33
Gibbons, H.S., & Wentworth, G.P. (2001). Andrological and pedagogical training differences for online instructors. Online Journal of Distance Learning Administration, (IV)III. Retrieved from http://www.westga.edu/~distance/ojdla/fall43/gibbons_wentworth43.html
Houde, J. (2006). Andragogy and motivation: An examination of the principles of andragogy through two motivation theories. Retrieved from ERIC. (ED492652)
Illinois Online Network. (2010). Instructional strategies for online courses. Retrieved from http://www.ion.uillinois.edu/resources/tutorials/pedagogy/instructionalstrategies.asp
Pew, S. (2007). Andragogy and pedagogy as foundational theory for student motivation in higher education. InSight: A Collection of Faculty Scholarship, (2), 14-25. Retrieved from http://www.insightjournal.net/Volume2/Andragogy%20and%20Pedagogy%20as%20Foundational%20Theory%20for%20Student%20Motivation%20in%20Higher%20Education.pdf
Thompson, M.A., & Deis, M. (2004). Andragogy for adult learners in higher education. Allied Academies International Conference, 9(1), 107-112. Retrieved from http://www.sbaer.uca.edu/research/allied/2004/financialStudies/pdf/33.pdf
