Online Training/Development for Andragogical Instructors

Note:  Despite attempts to ensure best formatting, this site does not cooperate.  I apologize for this issue.

Abstract

Novice or pre-service teachers are significantly concerned about delivering successful online learning.  Although an ever-increasing selection of e-learning tools exists, and processes to deploy them, more initial emphasis should be placed on teacher preparedness, and identifying the skills needed to achieve the desired learner outcomes.  Using technologies with "bells and whistles" cannot guarantee effective learning.  Likewise, effective teaching must include plans for ongoing professional development, reflection upon one's teaching strengths and weaknesses as well as a process for identifying and addressing personal challenges to teaching adults online.   

Training in an Online Environment 

            Teaching online requires faculty development that depends upon employer and employee-centered responsibilities, which assures that faculty are trained who use sound educational theory and principles for course development and delivery (Barker, 2003, p. 278).  "Faculty development activities are not singular or sequential, but involve an ongoing commitment of time and money" (Barker, 2003, p. 278) by the teaching facility, and the instructor.  Because designing and generating an online faculty training program includes daily changes in technologies (Barker, 2003), developing faculty and institutional course delivery systems quickly is critical to successful e-learning.  The Professional Development Plan (PDP) provides such utility.

Professional Development Plan (PDP) 

            This paper addresses issues relative to developing a PDP, and includes an assessment of the strengths and weaknesses that the PDP will take advantage of or resolve.  Maximizing the development of strengths would logically improve the instructor's teaching effectiveness.  Furthermore, consideration of an instructor's specific challenges additionally affects whether the PDP contains a complete set of elements that can secure successful learner outcomes.  After  identifying the instructor's weaknesses, strengths, and challenges, the process to improve online teaching effectiveness can be devised.  Completing the Career Development Plan Template is recommended as a first step, which is located at http://www.careers-advice-online.com/support-files/sample-career-development-plan-worksheet.pdf.

            Although Knowles, Holton, & Swanson (2005) offer guidelines to be addressed later for instructors contemplating professional development, developing a plan to facilitate improvements in some of their "competencies" (p. 273) appears to list skills that may or may not materialize (or be applicable) as part of a teaching assignment.  That being said, a professional development plan provided by an employer for an adjunct professor teaching adults online should impute the following according to Hill (2008): an "effective, integral and continuous opportunit(y) for professional growth" (p. 174), which integrates "part-time instructors more fully into the university community, instills a greater sense of commitment, and maintains consistency and rigor of teaching and learning" (p. 174).  Likewise, Hewitt and Powers (2007) wrote that university employers should employ "an increasing understanding of professional development and teacher mentorship in online environments via theoretical and empirical research grounded in a practical appreciation of assessing what works in various online settings" (p. 3).  Velez (2009) also encouraged a Community of Practice within online institutions, which gives "online faculty a place where their stories are shared and their voices are heard" (par. 7), and imparts an improved connectivity to others who also teach at one's university.   

            Hewitt and Powers (2007) wrote that instructors using "online media to teach and train are insufficiently or non-optimally prepared for online work settings" (p. 4) but can "self-select and determine their own readiness for online instruction—a necessary first step for teaching effectively in online settings" (p. 8).  According to Hewitt and Powers (2007), learning new technologies is a skill set specific to the institution.  However, additional caveats include:

Teaching online involves a deepening knowledge of how students respond to and learn in online settings…(and) requires becoming a student again in the realm of educational technology—listening to our inner voices where, as learners in relatively uncharted learning environments, we alternatively teach others and allow them to teach us.  Every encounter with online teaching and learning thus becomes a sort of informational interview or experiential research project with the online media, the course work, our own pedagogies, and—of course—the students and their learning processes.  (p. 2)

            Kennedy (2010) reported that the International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE) supports teachers' participation in local and global learning communities to discover distinctive methods to improve student learning such as by individualizing and personalizing  "activities and assessments based on students' learning styles as well as promoting student reflection for deeper, analytical understanding" (Kennedy, 2010, p. 23).  When teachers individualize and personalize instructional strategies, students become engaged with "real-world issues" (p. 23), and begin thinking outside the box, which results in "authentic, creative ways to solve problems using digital tools" (p. 23).

            Another professional development plan component could include a pairing with virtual school teachers at institutions of higher learning such as at the Florida Virtual School, which uses the pairing within an online learning environment for four to seven weeks (Kennedy, 2010).  The school's objective is to impart knowledge to pre-service students about how to teach a traditional class as well as a virtual class (Kennedy, 2010).  Teaching standards by the "SREB, iNACOL, NEA, and ISTE" (Kennedy, 2010, p. 26) make certain that online students' experiences are focused upon a quality learning experience, and clarifies future guidelines in order for online instructors to "promote meaningful learning in online and blended learning environments" (p. 26).

            Santovic (2004) wrote that "experiential learning — specifically having online educators use online professional development — is successful in changing teaching practices" (p. 4).  Experiential learning improves instructors' abilities to develop online "time management strategies, is more likely to support a virtual practicum, and continues learning and reflecting on their practice" (Santovic, 2004, p. 4).  Interventions affecting progressive development for  teaching online includes experience as an online learner, comfortably using technology, and skill in managing and modifying technologies that appeal to "one’s personality, content, style and other behavioral characteristics" (Santovic, 2004, p. 4), all of which enable an online instructor to accept ownership when using online environments.  Santovic (2004) wrote that schools can educate, inform and expand their visions by preparing instructors to teach online by encouraging self-assessment of "beliefs about teaching and the role of the teacher; providing hands-on learning opportunities; modeling methods and capabilities of online environment for learning; expanding the vision of what can be done and displaying the possibilities; and providing administrative support" (p. 5).

Reflection of Online Teaching: Weaknesses

            During the pursuit of three academic online programs, observations of over 45 instructors' practices provide insight relative to the issues impacting online teaching.  The most surprising and discomfiting component employed by universities that provide an online education relates to spoon-feeding curricular materials to instructors.  Such materials are chosen by universities to assure that the learning modules meet with their accrediting agency's requirements.  "For reasons of…accreditation, it is incumbent upon institutions of higher learning to support all instructors and nurture a professional learning community" (Hill, 2008, p. 176).  Necessitating very little if any course design by instructors, learning is negatively impacted because the curriculum does not factor in an instructor's expertise.  As reported by Easton (2003), "the instructor steps into a course that is already developed, and then the role becomes one similar to the mentor’s" (p. 100).  Institutions that design and control curriculums cause other issues that result in de-motivating learners: using dated syllabi, textbooks, and e-tools, not fixing broken links, repeating assignments from course to course, presenting assignments that do not reflect required textbooks' information, and not using state-of-the-art technologies.

            In effect, instructors are not empowered to change instructional practices as they see fit.  An entire "practice" includes a welcome message to students, assessment and grading of assignments that often includes prewritten commentary (rather than being customized to the student), periodic solicited advice, and posting of a final grade.  Such institutional practices allude to schools that make cakes from scratch, and use instructors to merely ice the finished products with icing that is already formulated.  Other detractors for online adjunct teaching include "compensation issues, intellectual property ownership issues, more work to develop and teach online (which is possibly counterproductive to professional advancement), technical difficulties; inadequate training, support, and the addition of new roles" (Shea, 2007, p. 75). 

Reflection of Online Teaching: Strengths 

            Strengths gained from online learning include experience interacting with a variety of online students and instructors, appreciation for the flexibility of online learning, expanded knowledge base relative to online technologies, and expanded opportunities for professional recognition and research (Shea, 2007).   As noted earlier, Knowles, Holton, & Swanson (2005) proffered specific competencies that instructors need for teaching adults.  As a non-practicing online instructor, considering at length the competencies that could be addressed in a professional development plan was an ambiguous effort.  Since completing a Master's in Education with a specialty in Distance Education, and now being at the conclusion of the required courses for a doctorate in education with a specialization in e-learning, an assumption must be made that all of the instructional competencies noted by Knowles et al. (2005) have to some extent been gained.  Therefore, to devise a professional development plan to augment the competencies seems secondary to the greater objective, which is to practice teaching.  Every course and university where practice might be conducted have their own customized systems in place.  Therefore, to provide a professional development plan for competencies that my programs should have provided to me at some extent carries less value to me than creating a PDP that encompasses the other subjects addressed in this paper.  To clarify, leveraging the assistance of practicing instructors such as mentors to increase my network, increasing the monitoring of the many online job posting sites, and so forth as discussed next, are the components of my PDP rather than a PDP to heighten competencies in skills that are already competencies.  

Identification and Plan to Address Personal Challenges 

            Naturally, the PDP must address personal challenges.  Two such challenges include not teaching in a traditional or online classroom, and lacking to date an opportunity to observe an online class before teaching such a class.  A study by Shea (2007) found that "less experienced online teachers may be more dissuaded by their unfamiliarity with effective online pedagogy, absence of face-to-face interaction, lack of opportunity to observe online teaching before trying it, lack of opportunity to experiment with online technology before adopting it, and inadequate time to learn about online teaching suggests that future growth and quality is contingent on the availability of training" (p. 84).  Leveraging the assistance of practicing instructors such as mentors to increase my network, increasing the monitoring of the many online job posting sites, and increasing activity in other online teaching social networks will increase my potential in retaining an online teaching post.  Increasing the possibility of retaining an online teaching position also includes applying for non-teaching online jobs in the educational field.  Retaining such a position even if under-employed can provide opportunities for employers to use my educational achievements, 35 years of work experience, and online technical expertise to fill better positions, and help "less experienced online instructors to confront the challenges they identify as demotivating" (Shea, 2007, p. 85).

Process to Improve Online Teaching Effectiveness

            Improving effectiveness as an online teacher refers to improving learning outcomes.  Addressing processes to improve effectiveness requires a review of the latest curriculum and teaching competencies (CTCs).  Villar and Alegre (2008) discussed the knowledge emerging from innovative higher education institutes relative to teaching educators, who were mostly interested in "accessibility to grades, online forum discussions and constant and immediate feedback" (p. 170).   Teaching excellence equated with faculty participating in voluntary CTC courses, which offered collaborative forum discussions with colleagues, raised sensitivity levels regarding the diversity of learning approaches, created a positive virtual environment, and helped instructors to find the "deep meaning behind learning to teach" (Villar & Alegre, 2008, p. 179).

            Glahn and Gen (2002) recommended that the next step needed to improve student achievement is the "development, implementation, and refinement of collaborative learning, learning communities, and individual learning strategies" (p. 777).  Progenies from technological innovations, and traditional practices in education is pushing educators and administrators to relook at course design and delivery.  Many of the "contemporary enterprise solutions for online course management" (Glahn & Gen, 2002, p. 777) have resulted in a variety of teaching instruments becoming standardized.   As the "current ad hoc nature of process innovation gives way to an emphasis in structure, best practices, and the codification of those practices, the online teaching delivery systems will become more rigid and their operation will become formalized and universal" (Glahn & Gen, 2002, p. 777).  Consequently, an online instructor's challenge is to create better uses of existing e-tools as a means to understand, and create process innovations that focus on andragogical instructional practices (Glahn & Gen, 2002).  Teaching online converts to spaces for social interactions, and shared learning.  Another technique to improve online teaching effectiveness involves the "Just-in-Time" concept that requires participants to perform pre-class activities, which increases student preparedness for upcoming classes, and teacher preparedness due to student feedback (Glahn & Gen, 2002).

            Hill (2008) suggested instructors improve teaching effectiveness by undergoing online seminars, and taking advantage of professional development websites, which preserves reliability and rigidity in student learning outcomes as gains are made in improved teaching materials and resources as well as explicit, specialized expertise.  As Hill (2008) explains, full-time faculty members develop the curriculums, maintain courses, and oversee participants' work, which includes:

Focused asynchronous discussion forums about university policies, curricular changes and developments, teaching adult learners, online instructional methodologies, onsite classroom strategies and activities, or other issues specifically related to the course content or assignments.  The asynchronous nature of the discussions provides more consistent opportunities for  participation, for revisiting previous postings, deeper levels of reflection, access to a broader spectrum of ideas, more concrete connections to theory and practice, and more ways for the facilitators to model higher order responses and offer clarification.  (p. 181)

            Retaining an online adjunct teaching position in the future, and being successful at achieving effectiveness in teaching, should come after a sense of collegiality with the potential employer is demonstrated.  When universities deliver a "sense of belonging, and a sense of collegiality with the university and other faculty" (Velez, 2009, par. 2), involve "faculty in academic decisions, and recognize them in some way for a job well done" (par. 2), which is a challenge for virtual universities, an instructor gains a supportive system.  Supporting faculty gains a strong infrastructure that enables instructors to teach effectively.

Conclusion

            Effective and successful online teaching requires several considerations.  This paper addressed issues relative to not only developing a PDP but also included a preliminary assessment of the strengths and weaknesses that a PDP would advantageously take advantage of or resolve.  Maximizing the development of strengths would logically improve the instructor's teaching effectiveness.  Accepting a personal responsibility for self-development should remain at the forefront for pre-service and practicing instructors.  Furthermore, a careful consideration, and ongoing reconsideration, of an instructor's specific challenges additionally affects whether a PDP encapsulates a complete portfolio of all factors that can affect achieving successful learner outcomes.  "Success on any major scale requires you to accept responsibility . . . . In the final analysis, the one quality that all successful people have is the ability to take on responsibility" (Korda, 1977, p. 14).

References: 

Barker, A. (2003, November/December). Faculty development for teaching online: Educational and technological issues. Journal of Continuing Education in Nursing, 34(6), 273-278. Retrieved from EBSCOhost Education Research Complete.

Easton, S.S. (2003, April). Clarifying the Instructor’s Role in Online Distance Learning. Communication Education, 52(2), 87–105. Retrieved from http://www.wvu.edu/~itdc/

resources/teaching/InstructorRole.pdf

Glahn, R., & Gen, R. (2002, December). Progenies in education: The evolution of internet teaching. Community College Journal of Research & Practice, 26(10), 777-785. Retrieved from EBSCOHost Education Research Complete.

Hewett, B.L., & Powers, C.E. (2007, Winter). Guest editors' introduction: Online teaching and learning: Preparation, development, and organizational communication.  Technical Communication Quarterly, 16(1), 1-11. Retrieved from EBSCOHost Education Research Complete.

Hill, R.A. (2008, March). Strengthening teaching communities through online professional development. Journal of Research in Innovative Teaching, 1(1), 174-186. Retrieved from EBSCOhost Education Research Complete.

Kennedy, K. (2010). Cross-reference of online teaching standards and the development of quality teachers for 21st century learning environments. Distance Learning, 7(2), 21-28. Retrieved from EBSCOhost Education Research Complete.

Knowles, M.S., Holton, E.F. (III), & Swanson, R.A. (2005). The adult learner: The definitive classic in adult education and human resource development. Burlington, MA: Elsevier.

Korda, M. (1977). Success! Retrieved from http://www.leadershipnow.com/responsibilityquotes.html

Santovec, M.L. (2004, September 15). Doing online professional development -- online. Distance Education Report, 8(18), 4-7. Retrieved from EBSCOhost Education Research Complete.

Shea, P. (2007, July). Bridges and barriers to teaching online college courses: A study of experienced online faculty in thirty-six colleges. Journal of Asynchronous Learning Networks, 11(2), 73-128. Retrieved from EBSCOhost Education Research Complete.

Velez, A.M. (2009, Summer). The ties that bind: How faculty learning communities connect online adjuncts to their virtual institutions. Online Journal of Distance Learning Administration, XII(II). Retrieved from http://www.westga.edu/~distance/ojdla/summer122/velez122.html

Villar, L.M., & Alegre, O.M. (2008, August). Measuring faculty learning in curriculum and teaching competence online courses. Interactive Learning Environments, 16(2), 169- 181. Retrieved from EBSCOhost Education Research Complete.

The differences between pedagogy and andragogy: Implications for online learning and teaching

Research indicates that pedagogy has two definitions: the science or profession of teaching, and the Greek derivation of the art and science of teaching children.  Andragogy, on the other hand, appears to be defined as the science or profession of teaching adults.  In any case, a review of prior research may help to solve this issue by providing a means to differentiate between the two terms, and the three definitions. 

Knowles (1980) explained that adults "want to be able to apply whatever knowledge and skill they gain today to living more effectively tomorrow, learning experiences should be organized around competency-development categories, and adults are performance-centered in their orientation to learning" (Knowles, 1980, p. 44).  On the other hand, pedagogy explains that "learners see education as a process of acquiring subject matter content" (Knowles, 1980, p. 44) to be used in the future.  "Curriculums should be organized into subject matter units, (and learners) are subject-centered in their orientation to learning " (Knowles, 1980, p. 44).      

When teaching adults, "the psychological climate should be one which causes adults to feel accepted, respected, and supported; in which there exists a spirit of mutuality between teachers and students as joint inquirers; in which there is freedom of expression without fear of punishment or ridicule" (Knowles, 1980, p. 47).  Due to "the adult's self-concept of self-directivity, andragogical practice treats the learning-teaching transaction as the mutual responsibility of learners and teacher" (Knowles, 1980, p. 44).  Consequently, the instructor's role becomes that of a "procedural technician, resource person, and co-inquirer (Knowles, 1980, p. 44).  Wisely, Knowles (1980) noted that when one adult judges another, a childlike treatment emerges, which carries with it "disrespect and dependency" (p. 48).

Adults' experiences represent "richer resources for learning than is true of children" (Knowles, 1980, p. 50).  Instructors often use teaching techniques that "tap the experience of the adult learners" (Knowles, 1980, p. 50).  For example, activities can include group discussions, case methods, "the critical-incident process, simulation exercises, role playing, skill-practice exercises, field projects, action projects, laboratory methods, consultative supervision, demonstration, seminars, work conferences, counseling, group therapy, and community development" (Knowles, 1980, p. 50).  Knowles (1980) noted that during the developmental tasks used to instruct children, a "readiness to learn" (or teachable moment) arises.  Curiously, adult learners also have "phases of growth and resulting developmental tasks" (Knowles, 1980, p. 51): "the developmental tasks of youth tend to be the products primarily of physiological and mental maturation while those of the adult years are the products primarily of the evolution of social roles" (p. 51).

"Children start fairly early to see themselves as being self-directing in broadening areas of their lives; they start accumulating experience that has increasing value for learning; they start preparing for social roles (such as through part-time jobs) and therefore experience adultlike readinesses to learn; and they encounter life problems for which they would like some learnings for immediate application" (Knowles, 1980, p. 58).  Consequently, "many of the principles of andragogy have direct relevance to the education of children and youth" (Knowles, 1980, p. 58).  Challenging children to progress at a rate they are capable of, and assimilating them more freely into andragogical learning, creates a new paradigm for teaching and learning.  The new paradigm could better define how e-learning tools might improve learning for children and adults.  

Supporting such a paradigm was considered by Goodmurphy, Branton, Callens, & Gedies (2000) who wrote that "four of andragogy's five key assumptions apply equally to adults and children. The sole difference is that children have fewer experiences and pre-established beliefs than adults and thus have less to relate." Differences between children and adult learners becomes less noticeable, and "similarities become more cohesive in and among all learning groups--namely adult learners and children" (Goodmurphy et al., 2000, p. 6).  "Andragogical learners still prefer an andragogical approach with elements of pedagogy included while pedagogical learners still prefer a pedagogical approach with elements of andragogy included (Goodmurphy et al., 2000, p. 6).  Such an opinion calls out for further research.  In the meantime, childhood and adult instructors could collaborate so that their feedback could benefit improving learning in secondary schools, especially for children ready and able to learn.  "Andragogy informs us that adults, and many would argue all learners, bring experience, varied needs and expectations, and personal motivation to the learning experience, which supports a learner-centered approach to education" (Goodmurphy et al., 2000, p. 6).  

Holmes and Abington-Cooper (2000) discussed three myths typically associated with self-directed learning: "adults are naturally self-directed, when, in reality, their capability for self-directed learning may vary widely; self-direction is an all-or-nothing concept" (par. 29).  The second myth is that "adults have varying degrees of willingness or ability to assume personal responsibility for learning, (and) choose their own goals, objectives, degree of participation, learning content, learning method, and assessments" (Holmes and Abington-Cooper, 2000, par. 29).  The third myth is that "self-directed learning means learning in isolation; however, the essential dimension of self-directed learning may be psychological control that a learner can exert in any solitary, informal, or traditional setting" (Holmes and Abington-Cooper, 2000, par. 29) . 

Holmes and Abington-Cooper (2000) wrote that "adult education could survive quite nicely without andragogy, but that there is some merit in redefining the term, clarifying it conceptually, and testing it empirically" (par. 29).  Apparently, an inconsistency between pedagogy and andragogy was presented by Knowles (Holmes and Abington-Cooper, 2000).  Relooking at the two terms could substantially improve the teaching strategies used for children and adults, and further explore the over-lapping that exists between the two groups.  Every opportunity should be adopted as soon as possible to take advantage of children transitioning to adult learning methods.  Maximizing learning outcomes is achievable when learners are ready to learn rather than waiting until a particular age arrives.

References: 

Goodmurphy, M., Branton, B., Callens, P., & Gedies, T. (2000). Andragogical and pedagogical differences relative to their interfacing with internet resources. Retrieved from

http://cclp.mior.ca/Reference%20Shelf/PDF_OISE/andragogical%20pedagogical%20differences.pdf

Holmes, G., & Abington-Cooper, M. (Summer/Fall 2000). Pedagogy vs. andragogy: A false dichotomy? Retrieved from http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/JOTS/Summer-Fall-2000/holmes.html

Knowles, M.S. (1980). The modern practice of adult education, from pedagogy to andragogy. The Journal of Technology Studies, 26(2).  Retrieved from http://www.hospitalist.cumc.

columbia.edu/downloads/cc4_articles/Education%20Theory/Andragogy.pdf

Pedagogical Integration of Technology with Curriculums in a Traditional Hawaiian Classroom

          The kumu (teachers) Gibson and Puniwai designed a prototype course in cooperation with the

Center for Gifted and Talented Native Hawaiian Children, which is a center for "increasing the

educational enrichment opportunities for Native Hawaiian Children" (Gibson and Puniwai, 2006, p.

288). Native Hawaiians view all children as gifted (Gibson, et al, p. 288). Three key elements

represent the Hawaiian children's educational experience: "the sense of self, ohana (family), and

Native Hawaiian perspective (culture)" (Gibson, et al, p. 288). Gibson's and Puniwai's (2006)

archetype proposed integration of Hawaiian Traditional Knowledge (H.T.K.) with Earth system

science exposing "students to geospatial technologies" using a "global positioning system (G.P.S.)"

and "a geographic information system (G.I.S.)" (Gibson, et al, p. 289). Discussion related to

Gibson's and Puniwai's project ensues, which reviews pertinent strategies supporting the

technological integration with H.T.K., potential challenges, how the curriculum and technological

standards were integrated and complimented each other, and observations by Gibson and Puniwai,

which summarize the effectiveness of implementing the curriculum with new technologies.

Curriculum Content

         The proposed curriculum consists of Earth system science, traditional (indigenous) knowledge, and geospatial technologies. Indigenous knowledge is the curriculum that Gibson and Puniwai (2006) suggest could "create a pathway to attract more indigenous peoples (in the Pacific Rim) into the geosciences" (Gibson, et al, p. 289). Twelve students between the ages of 13 and 15 of Hawaiian ancestry were initially trained on hand-held G.P.S. devices to map and locate specific geographic points at the University of Hawaii (Gibson, et al, p. 289), and included discovery of various ecological and geological formations on the campus. The students and teachers then visited the Keaukaha Lake's shoreline for the course's marine component to map different animal and plant habitats. The teachers arranged for a Native Hawaiian shoreline caretaker (kahu) to join the group to enrich the students with H.T.K., which included cultural information, and Native Hawaiian science details about the "tidal flux, wave action, ocean currents, living organisms, and geology" (Gibson, et al, p. 290). The students used "her verbal map as a guide", and explored the habitat's "tidal pools, splash zone, fish ponds, and mixed rocky/sandy beaches" (Gibson, et al, p. 290). Gibson and Puniwai then explained "geological formations, composition of sand, coral reef formation, tidal influence and many other topics" (Gibson, et al, p. 290) to the students mixing native Hawaiian knowledge with science.

         The terrestrial part of the curriculum included "field-based, service learning" at the Hakalau Forest National Wildlife Refuge. Cultural content for this curriculum portion included teaching the students an 'oli komo (chant), which calls upon ancestors "to watch over and grant blessings, knowledge, and good judgment" (Gibson and Puniwai, 2006, p. 290). Additionally, the teachers shared information about how the students' ancestors used the forest's resources, and how geoscience topics (hydrology, erosion, and runoff) related to those resources and culture (Gibson, et al, p. 290). G.P.S. devices were employed and students recorded data located on existing plant labels. The data was later input by the students on computers to create a "shapefile of the plant locations" (Gibson, et al, p. 291), and provided to the United States Forestry personnel, who updated their records. Outcomes and assessments were conducted at class-end.

Strategies Supporting Technological Integration

         Those living in the Pacific Rim are "among the most vulnerable to climate change" (Gibson and Puniwai, 2006, p. 287). Two potential geoscience threats exist for those living in the Pacific Rim: low-lying populated islands experiencing a small sea level rise and complete inundation, and the fresh water supply in the nearby populated areas not flooded, which becomes compromised by infiltrating sea water (Gibson, et al, 2006). Consequently, a keen desire emerged by natives in the Pacific Rim to more fully understand and monitor environmental changes, and reduce the impact of weather-related risks for the living (Gibson and Puniwai, 2006). Assimilating traditional environmental knowledge of Pacific Rim natives with modern- day geoscience technology effectively delivers a "culturally appropriate" teaching and learning model (Gibson, et al, p. 287). Designing a teaching and learning model infused with tradition, culture, and area history together with modern-day geoscience technologies should promote heightened interest in minorities of the Pacific Rim who seldom enter "geoscience-related professions" (Gibson, et al, p. 287).

Potential Challenges

         Numerous challenges exist for integrating N.H.K. with geoscience. For example, people questioning credibility related to its purpose might ask, "Why change what has worked well for generations?" Difficulties between English and Hawaiian languages pose problems between the native students and the teachers. Another challenge includes training students on expensive new technological devices, which may be financially unfeasible. Traditional (indigenous) knowledge depends upon a "qualitative understanding of the whole Earth, to Western Science, which commonly requires quantitative data on parts of the Earth system (Gibson and Puniwai, 2006, p. 288). Many Native Hawaiians perceive "that their traditional knowledge is contradictory to Western science" (Gibson, et al, p. 289). Completely diverse philosophies would struggle for supremacy rather than equivocal complimentary positions.

         Armstrong, Henson, and Savage (2009) wrote that "Existing practices are preserved not only by technologies that allow no alternatives but also by tradition" (Armstrong, et al, p. 288). Static traditions and technologies disallow progress or potentially improved learner outcomes. "New technologies provide opportunities, but not mandates, for change" (Armstrong, et al, p. 289). Although some Hawaiians are willing to endorse new technology in collaboration with their native skills because native skills do not fully protect them from harm from the climactic changes, and technology can improve the number of saved lives by providing earlier bad weather warnings, willingness does not preclude successful implementation. The "technology usage gap is closing between Whites and Asian Americans/Pacific Islanders" (Armstrong, et al, p. 303), and the closure of this digital divide (Armstrong, et al, p. 302) will be expensive. Finally, students must be willing to learn. If students are not willing, teachers need to convince students to be willing to learn. However, conflicts between tradition and science may be difficult to surmount.

Curriculum and Technological Standards' Integration and Complimentary Aspects

         Teaching geoscience and infusing typical "community-based activities, cultural knowledge, and a 'place-based' approach" (Gibson and Puniwai, 2006, p. 289) significantly narrowed the gap between teaching Western Science and embracing Hawaiian's traditional knowledge. The melding of "traditional qualitative knowledge and cultural perspectives with quantitative (Western) Earth system science" (Gibson, et al, p. 289) was successful. Four elements improving the students' learning comfort levels included: (1) building upon a "student's interest and ability", (2) "helping and promoting the student's sense of self as related to their perspective of family, culture, and community", (3) integrating "Native Hawaiian culture and values into the education and learning process", and (4) "focusing on the influence of family" (Gibson, et al, p. 289).

         A trial class was conducted for testing assimilation of the Native H.T.K. with general geoscience information, and global positioning and mapping devices, which most students adapted to easily. Puniwai (Gibson, et al, p. 289), in addition to teaching geoscience, was a helper who "was responsible for integrating Hawaiian culture into the course" (Gibson, et al, p. 289). "Fostering inquiry about Earth system processes that Native Hawaiian children observe daily can create that critical link between science and traditional knowledge" (Gibson, et al, p. 290). Gibson and Puniwai (2006) successfully created that critical link.

Educators' Methods for Observing Effective Implementation

of Curriculum and Technology

         Gibson and Puniwai (2006) assessed the effectiveness of their two-week course by measuring how the students rated three questions, which mirrored the class' objectives: how well the students felt that their abilities improved, "did they learn 'things' Hawaiian?" (Gibson and Puniwai, 2006, p. 292), and whether they felt "good about the class overall" (Gibson, et al, p. 292). In addition, the teachers observed student presentations about what they learned, which included technical data and maps, and reviewed students' comments reflecting very successful learning. An increase in the students' technical ability of the G.P.S. device and PowerPoint software was demonstrated, and an end-of-course survey revealed a "modest to successful (learning) impact" (Gibson, et al, p. 292), which was enhanced due to the students' proficiency in Hawaiian and English languages. Eighty percent of the students responded between "good" and "excellent" about the course overall, and since no student remarked negatively about the course, the teachers interpreted the students' appraisals to mean that they "had taken some measure of learning and new knowledge with them" (Gibson, et al, p. 293).

Conclusion

         This evaluation of a pilot geoscience course created and conducted by Gibson and Puniwai(2006) describes the curriculum content for a group of Hawaiian students who are deeply engrained in traditional island folklore. Additionally presented were the strategies supporting the course's technological integration with H.T.K., the potential challenges for course implementation, and the integration and complimentary natures between the curriculum and geoscience technology. The effectiveness achieved when implementing the curriculum with geoscience technology concludes the

evaluation.

References:

Armstrong, D., Henson, K., and Savage, T. (2009). Teaching today, an introduction to education, 8th Ed. Pearson, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey. 

Gibson, B., and Puniwai, N. (2006). Developing an archetype for integrating native Hawaiian traditional knowledge with earth system science education. Journal of Geoscience Education, 54(3). Proquest Education Journals.

Andragogical Principle: Motivation--Implications for Designing and Delivering Online Teaching

Abstract

Motivational influencers affecting adult online learners are complex, and sometimes obscure especially considering that every adult’s quality of learning is individual, and impacted by experential effects.  Furthermore, every adult uses a different learning theory.  Accepting that instructional best practices, and andragogical (self-directed learning) principles are going to influence learning according to past results can cause an extraordinary level of disappointment for the instructor and adult learner.  With online learning technologies rapidly changing, yesterday’s andragogical principles cannot be expected to motivate students to learn as expected by even the most expert online teacher.  Instructors who fail to analyze, adapt, implement, and reflect upon the impact from e-tools can fail before they begin.

Motivation of the Adult Learner

Why is external motivation needed for an adult to learn?  Is not an internal motivation to gain knowledge enough for an adult to achieve the intended learning?  As Thompson and Deis (2004) explain, learning is an “iterative, dynamic process of change, dependent on the learner’s self-efficacy to take responsibility for his or her own learning” (p. 108).  Self-motivaters can rapidly cause adults to become discouraged such as when learning progress is slower than the adult learner’s expectations, the instructor’s support does not provide the minimum required by the learner or unexpected personal and/or professional responsibilities intercede periodically, which impacts learning efficiency at differing degrees (Thompson and Deis, 2004).  Supporting a good level of self-motivators is achieved by learning activities that include joint input from a facilitator and a learner using reflection and analysis, integrating new activities, and then repeating reflection and analysis (Thompson and Deis, 2004).  Following below is an explanation of the andragogical principles, motivational concerns applicable to the andragogical principles, and andragogical principles’ implications for online design and delivery of adult learning.

Principles of Andragogy as a Learning Theory Explained

Thompson and Deis (2004) summarized Knowles’ principles of andragogy: adult learners’ perception of self-concept transposes from dependence to self-directed, experential knowledge increasingly contributes to a student’s learning resources, developmental tasks required for a learner’s social identity are grounded by the learner’s readiness to learn, and time orientation related to new knowledge application shifts from a “use-later” application to “need-to-use-now” application, which causes a transition of the learner’s orientation of subject-centeredness to the preferred problem-centeredness orientation.  Motivational constraints arise as adults begin transitioning toward self-direction and a problem-centered orientation, begin applying experential knowledge to new learning, a learner’s readiness to learn becomes muffled, and timeliness for applying new knowledge degrades.  These transitional elements affecting each learner at differing degrees must be addressed when designing and delivering online teaching if learning activities successfully adapt to the learner’s needs.

Motivational Concerns Applicable to Andragogical Principles

Thompson and Deis (2004) assert that assessments provide adults with an evaluative tool, which provides motivation, feedback, self-awareness, empowerment, and a “richer, deeper learning experience” (p. 110).  Assessment supports another of the andragogical principles, which is that “developmental tasks required for a learner’s social identity are grounded by the learner’s readiness to learn” (Thompson and Deis, 2004, p. 108).  If developmental tasks inclusive of assessment components are not included in the online adult learners’ curriculum, there is a very significant lost opportunity for motivating learning.  Thompson and Deis (2004) wrote that the andragogical principle referring to the transition from theory to practice with a focus on problems rather than content explains that “successful education will relate theory to practice, and advocate bringing ‘real world’ opportunities into the classroom” (p. 109).

Clardy (2001) presented an alternative approach that “seeks to avoid the demotivating conditions of pedagogy and the denuded substance of andragogy through the use of (synergogical) self-directing learning teams” (p. 20), which use “highly participative, self-directed learning activities” (Clardy, 2001, p. 20).  Clardy (2001) wrote that andragogical principles may provide increased motivation.  However, improved motivation results in decreased “substantive content and learning…(and) implies a uniformity to adult learner needs and motivation that masks important individual differences between learners” (p. 20) as well as “imputes to adults more capability for and interest in self-directed learning than is likely” (p. 20).

Clardy’s (2001) analysis of the andragogical principle is based purely upon a review of Knowles’ and other literature rather than an empirical study.  Clardy (2001) wrote that Knowles’ andragogical theory inadequately identified types of adult learning situations” (p. 31), is resplendent with “radical subjectivism” (p. 20), and suffers from a number of problems in explaining learning effectiveness for adults.  Because improved motivation comes a decrease in “substantive content and learning” (Clardy, 2001, p. 20), Clardy (2001) suggests, and this writer agrees, that further study of the andragogical principles should be examined further.  Whether labeled andragogy or synergogy, strategies to motivate adult learners should not  contradict with learning principles that result in poorer learning as Clardy (2001) suggested.

Houde (2006) wrote that scholars increasingly propose that Knowles’ atheoretical andragogical principles, which are grounded by “observation and experience, rather than logical postulates and/or empirical research” (p. 90), and considered an “artifact from a mechanistic intellectual frame” (p. 90), be validated.  Houde (2006) recommends that validation be accomplished by using two theories: “socioemotional selectivity (focusing on individuals’ relationship with time, goals and emotions), and the self-determination theory (a needs-based theory that proposes an inherent growth drive centering on…autonomy, competence and relatedness)” (p. 90).  Houde (2006) explains that the andragogical principle relative to motivation assumes that adults’ external motivators consist of improved jobs, increased salaries, and so forth.  Internal motivators include aspirations for enhanced job satisfaction, improved self-esteem, quality of life, and so forth.  Houde’s (2006) article addresses the importance of validating the andragogical principle identified as motivation.  By using the two theories noted above to identify and assess tools for motivating adult learners, instructors can integrate improved and well grounded teaching methods to gain advanced learning.

Andragogical Principles’ Implications for Online Design and Delivery of Adult Learning

“Superior andragogical learning conditions should motivate the learners to feel a need to learn” (Thompson and Deis, 2004, p. 108).  Those learning conditions should enable “maximum flexibility and student self-governance” (Thompson and Deis, 2004, p. 108).  Therefore, the design and delivery of online curriculums should provide opportunities to gain self-governance, which mirrors the andragogical principle that supports an adult learner’s self-concept transitioning from one of dependence to self-directed.  Such an opportunity would enable learners to plan and process assignments without using mandated guidelines as to how the learning outcomes would be achieved.  For example, “domain-oriented design environments…allow learners (who are) provided contextualized support to engage in their own problems, and exploit breakdowns as opportunities for learning” (EduTech Wiki, 2009, par. 3).  The domain-oriented design allows learners to “create new artifacts and understand existing ones, they tailor instruction to serve the accomplishment of the task at hand, and they do this without disrupting or otherwise interfering with the task” (Fischer, n.d., par. 3).

Thompson and Deis (2004) indicated that another andragogical principle underscores a need for curriculums that “allow learners to rely on themselves as resources of learning” (p. 108).  Instructors who automatically provide resources and internet links to learners with directions to integrate information from those resources to the assigned activities opposes one of the andragogical principles: learners should increasingly contribute experential knowledge to the learner’s portfolio of resources.  Consequently, the design and delivery of e-learning should provide for use of the learner’s previous experiences and practical skills.  For example, a case study presented on web pages, and discussed in conferencing groups, draws upon learners’ past experiences, designed to appeal to the learners’ interests and experiences, and ties into the learning concepts (Illinois Online Network, 2010).

Thompson and Deis (2004) advocated that “successful education relates theory to practice, and advocates bringing ‘real world’ opportunities into the classroom” (p. 109).  The “real world” opportunities are provided to adult learners through “simulations, cases, technology, and collaborative learning opportunities between educational institutions and business” (p. 109). Any of these examples or a mix can be integrated into the online learning environment.

An article by Gibbons and Wentworth (2001) advises that e-tools using a discussion forum encourages critical thinking, and ties into “nontraditional learners’ current life tasks and problems” (par. 16).  Non-traditional e-learning techniques and processes that support the development of self-motivation in the adult learner significantly influences academic achievement (Gibbons and Wentworth, 2001).  Asynchronous discussion forums provide learners with more of an opportunity to reflect and revise before responding to peers.

A study by Cercone (2008) provides 13 recommendations for developing online courses based upon the andragogical principles.  For example, an instructional design that supports learners’ active involvement in learning includes activities that require learners to formulate their learning objectives, and learn skills of inquiry, decision-making, and self-regulation.  Embedding learning content within authentic context, requiring learners to create and problem-solve, periodically reflecting upon and revising learning goals, infusing conflicting theoretical resources into activities, requiring reflection about summarized experiences, and using learning contracts, case studies, and simulations to stimulate self-directed learning all aid in motivating adult learners (Cercone, 2008).

“Life is as much about determination as it is about motivation” (Pew, 2007, p. 22).  Today’s instructors should approach teaching from “an informed, deliberate, strategic and tactical perspective (to) improve the educational setting for both educators and learners” (Pew, 2007, p. 22).  Pew’s (2007) comment that “self-reliance is probably the most enduring source of motivation” (p. 23) efficiently describes that students able to rely upon themselves create their own elements of motivation.  Deriving a sense of self-regulated power from internal sources is available to students or instructors in the form of internal motivation.  The power merely needs plucking.

Conclusion

The remarks above address the motivational attributes relative to Knowles’ andragogical principles, and implications that the principles carry for online course design and delivery.  Most significantly, online instruction must influence adult learners to evolve into self-directed learners able to infuse experiential influencers into new knowledge that is germane to their use-now applications.  Gaining insight from adult online students who successfully demonstrate a higher level of evolvement as self-directed learners could provide instructors and instructional designers with invaluable information by using the learners’ perspectives.

References:

Cercone, K. (2008). Characteristics of adult learners with implications for online learning design. AACE Journal,16(2),137-159. Retrieved from http://training.gaincc.org/pluginfile.php/1014/mod_resource/content/0/adult_learners_online.pdf

Clardy, A. (2006). Andragogy: Adult learning and education at its best? Retrieved from http://grad.towson.edu/program/master/hurd-hrdg-ms/files/Andragogy%20Adult%20Learning.doc.

EduTech Wiki. (2009). Self-directed learning. Retrieved from http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/en/Self-directed_learning

Fischer, G. (n.d.). Learning opportunities provided by domain-oriented design environments. Retrieved from http://scholar.googleusercontent.com/scholar?q=cache:1jWoieMK2qYJ:scholar.google.com/&hl=en&as_sdt=0,33

Gibbons, H.S., & Wentworth, G.P. (2001). Andrological and pedagogical training differences for online instructors. Online Journal of Distance Learning Administration, (IV)III. Retrieved from http://www.westga.edu/~distance/ojdla/fall43/gibbons_wentworth43.html

Houde, J. (2006). Andragogy and motivation: An examination of the principles of andragogy through two motivation theories. Retrieved from ERIC. (ED492652)

Illinois Online Network. (2010). Instructional strategies for online courses. Retrieved from http://www.ion.uillinois.edu/resources/tutorials/pedagogy/instructionalstrategies.asp

Pew, S. (2007). Andragogy and pedagogy as foundational theory for student motivation in higher education. InSight: A Collection of Faculty Scholarship, (2), 14-25. Retrieved from http://www.insightjournal.net/Volume2/Andragogy%20and%20Pedagogy%20as%20Foundational%20Theory%20for%20Student%20Motivation%20in%20Higher%20Education.pdf

Thompson, M.A., & Deis, M. (2004). Andragogy for adult learners in higher education. Allied Academies International Conference, 9(1), 107-112. Retrieved from http://www.sbaer.uca.edu/research/allied/2004/financialStudies/pdf/33.pdf

Strategies for Creating a Social Presence within an Online Adult Learning Environment

Joyce and Brown (2009) explained that "faculty who want to extend or further develop relationships with their students may find it easier by accessing the tools used by the students…using tools already familiar with students may mean the difference between instruction and engagement” (par. 19). Such relationship-building appears more successful when employing an increased facility of synchronous communications, the design and inclusion of a forming stage, greater emphasis on the proviso of guidelines for achieving good online communication, and reducing the belief by learners of isolation. Joyce and Brown (2009) further explained that learners fall into two groups: an outsider "who is uncomfortable with the medium being used during the course and is not confident in its use” (par. 26), and an insider who “is comfortable with the medium being used during the course and is confident in its use” (par. 26). As the feeling of community becomes stronger, the feeling of isolation gets weaker. The transition from outsider to insider becomes easier when good communication guidelines are provided to the learners; learner support is paramount in promoting effective online learning (Joyce and Brown, 2009).

Scaffolding “directs the instructor's attention to the need for support in the learning process” (Joyce and Brown, 2009, par. 29), and the media and technologies used for online learning must be included in the support structure, which include learning materials, library resources, and teachers. By systemizing the design of scaffolds useable in many learning environments, a variety of learning concepts such as "goal orientation, adaptability, accessibility, alignment, experiential value, collaboration, constructivism, learning orientation, multiplicity, and granularity" (Joyce and Brown, 2009, par. 31) can be selected, and designed to coincide with the learning situation. The number of social software communication tools are increasing rapidly: podcasts, games, blogs, weblogs, wikis, social networking search engines, social network services, social guides, social bookmarking, social libraries, and peer-to-peer social networks (Joyce and Brown, 2009, par. 34).

Joyce and Brown (2009) presented powerful new strategies for the adult online learner in order to share information, and support a shared community of learning. For example, (1) personal discussion folders (or rooms/forums) are used to more fully discuss a specific topic, and instructors are frequently required to post about 30% of the messages; (2) immediacy, which refers to communications within 24 hours via verbal and nonverbal behaviors that augment interpersonal relationships online; (3) live chat that is less formal and more personal that many students favor; (4) personalized e-mails from the instructor to not-so-active students help to improve a learner's activity; (5) incorporating audio/video versus all text-based content; (6) providing quick feedback and regular updates; (6) use of group discussions; and (7) providing a student-only online communication area. “Social networks (such as Facebook or Twitter) are a powerful foundation from which to develop group identity and cohesion” (Joyce and Brown, 2009, par. 46).

Johnson (2007) supports "learner-learner interaction" (par. 4). However, more recent research indicates that many learners place a high value on the "independent and self-directed nature of online learning, and place less value on learner-learner interactions such as collaborative group work" (par. 5). Due to the paradoxical approaches toward communities of learners, and independent learning, a more in depth understanding and implementation of communities of learners is not necessarily the best approach (Johnson, 2007). "An increased focus on collaboration to promote learner-learner interaction may support strong learning outcomes, but may do so at the risk of detracting from some of the more practical advantages offered by online education" (Johnson, 2007, par. 55).

Rochester Institute of Technology Online Learning (2012) provided valuable insight about adult online learning strategies:

Learners: Adults have years of experience and a wealth of knowledge; Teaching Strategy: Use your adult students as resources for yourself and for other students; use open-ended questions to draw out students' knowledge and experiences; and provide many opportunities for dialogue among students.

Adults have established values, beliefs, and opinions; Strategy: Take time to clarify student expecatations of the course; permit debate and the challenge of ideas; be careful to protect minority opinions within the class.

Adults expect to be treated as adults; Strategy: treat questions and comments with respect; acknowledge contributions students make to the class; do not expect students to necessarily agree with your plan for the course.

Adults need to feel self-directed; Strategy: engage students in designing the learning process; expect students to want more than one medium for learning and to want control over the learning pace and start/stop times.

Adults often have a problem-centered approach to learning; Strategy: show immediately how new knowledge or skills can be applied to current problems or situations; use participatory techniques such as case studies and problem-solving groups.

Adults tend to be less interested in survey types of courses and more interested in straightforward how-to; Strategy: focus on theories and concepts within the context of their applications to relevant problems; orient the course content toward direct applications rather than toward theory.

Adults have increased variation in learning styles (individual differences among people increase with age); Strategy: use a variety of teaching materials and methods to take into account differences in style, time, types, and pace of learning.

Scollins-Mantha (2008) reported that as instructors encourage learners by supporting personal issues, learners' sense of a social presence increases. Some instructors use v-mail that includes a file with the instructor's voice attached to an e-mail. As teaching and learning paradigms continue to evolve, instructors may be more able to customize each adult learner's online experience if instead of perceiving each learner merely as one individual among many that there is also a growing empirical basis that requires instructors to acknowledge that each individual student belongs to a learning community in one form or another. Now may not be the time for instructors to depend on their past teaching experiences but rather to listen to the learners if one really seeks to teach a customized online learning experience.

Examples from Online Learning Experiences

This section does not provide an example that reflects an exposure to strategies used to build a social presence within an online adult learning environment. However, this section does show that an online instructional design, which was meant to represent a best practice, can be ill aligned if not designed appropriately. (Pre-assessing students' language skills, and better matching students within teams would be a strategy to build a good/better social presence that would prevent the issues discussed next.) The learning environment in my current and last programs (the PhD and master's) primarily centered upon learning within an asynchronous, non-collaborative online environment. In programs such as my bachelor's that required collaborative learning, 99% percent of the time team efforts were negatively affected by students unwilling to contribute their fair share. By having the quality of individual assignments potentially impacted by the extra time required of the group projects, the heavier group responsibilities took away from the time available for the individual assignments. In particular, by being burdened with aiding team members with proper academic writing, the resulting fatigue and frustration negatively affected my learning: completing individual assignments more quickly caused a decrease in my writing quality, and cognitive development was short-changed.

After the group experiences with the bachelor's program, I selected programs not requiring collaboration. Even with the potential of working collaboratively with a higher caliber of peers in my second and third degree programs, and the possibility of having a higher quality of learning experience, the negative results from my bachelor's teams seemed a greater risk of being repeated in my later programs. Consequently, if I lost what could have been an improved learning experience than what actually occurred, I do not regret my decision of learning non-collaboratively. Also, since my second and third programs were for degrees in distance education, my learning during these two programs has assured me that any compensations I have had to make have been worth the achieved level of learning.

Scollins-Mantha (2008) wrote that online instructors can provide guidance for teams by assigning roles such as a "moderator, starter, or wrapper" (par. ), which aids learning team members understand where to start, adds comfort, and heightens social presence. Such guidance and other simple elements of guidance were typically not provided to the teams I worked with so I assume that if the university/instructor had rolled out more tools to develop social presence that I may have experienced more team successes. I agree with Scollins-Mantha (2008) who noted that "adding choice to the structure of a group-learning situation could help to accommodate student’s preferences for varying degrees of social presence, increase a student’s comfort and satisfaction with the experience" (par. 45).

References:

Johnson, E.S. (2007). Promoting learner-learner interactions through ecological assessments of the online environment. MERLOT Journal of Online Learning and Teaching, 3(2). Retrieved from http://jolt.merlot.org/vol3no2/johnson.htm

Joyce, K.M., & Brown, A. (2009, Winter). Enhancing social presence in online learning: Mediation strategies applied to social networking tools. Online Journal of Distance Learning Administration, XII(IV). Retrieved from http://www.westga.edu/~distance/ojdla/winter124/joyce124.html

Rochester Institute of Technology Online Learning. (2012). Adult learners. Retrieved from
http://online.rit.edu/faculty/teaching_strategies/adult_learners.cfm

Scollins-Mantha, B. (2008). Cultivating social presence in the online learning classroom:
A literature review with recommendations for practice. Retrieved from http://itdl. org/Journal/Mar_08/article02.htm

Selecting e-Tools for Effective Online Workshop Delivery for Teaching Adult Learners

Abstract

Although a non-practicing post-secondary teacher must practice the development of online e-tools for teaching, an inherent difficulty arises from the Web, which contains a bottomless availability of such tools.  Assessing the most appropriate and effective e-tools that support best practices, and the newest teaching paradigms, as well as ensuring user-friendly software compatibility, are the primary objectives of an online instructor.  While the online university carries a majority of the burden for assessing an online learner's software skills, the online instructor must also be prepared and willing to aid the online learner as well.  Identifying the best tools, and providing the most relevant information to e-learners is paramount to meeting those objectives, and achieving a successful learning environment.

Online Adult Learning

Several considerations impacted the choices made in the creation and delivery of a Workshop for adult teachers who are interested in teaching online adult learners.  Georgiades (2009) explained that instructors have a need to know what participants experience before facilitating an online course, and the best way to gain this understanding is to first be a participant.  The Workshop provides the registrants with both opportunities.

Considerations for Selecting the Tool for Workshop Delivery 

Deciding upon the use of a Web site for delivering a Workshop for adult learners was based upon previous experience with software created by Wix.com.  Furthermore, if the teacher learners attending the Workshop are physically present, the online Workshop can also be used in a traditional classroom with access to a Whiteboard and individual computer stations.  The Workshop can be presented synchronously and asynchronously.  Planning an online Workshop  avails the training to more attendees, and enables the attendees to have first-hand (hands-on) training with online training tools.  The Web site software was chosen because it provides a very large choice of professional looking templates, is free, has very good server reliability, and provides the developer with an ability to insert links (including social network links), graphics (clipart), audio and video clips, and is very customizable.  The Web site can also be accessed by attendees after the ice-breaking activity, formal pre-recorded presentation, modules, and exercises are completed. 

As part of the Workshop pre-registration process, registrants supply information necessary for an effective online Workshop.  For example, the registrants' "language fluency, accents, typing skill, and technical expertise" (Horton, 2006, p. 420) as well as available computer equipment, software, and connection speeds is provided.  The software requirements are also provided to registrants, and any pre-loading necessary such as for the Adope Flash Player, is completed prior to the Workshop.  Registrants are provided with the Workshop Web site address (http://www.wix.com/dlfpoppins/teachonlinelearners#!home|mainPage), and the Workshop program.  The Workshop design includes a beginning time  at 10:00 a.m. on April 30, 2012, for the ice-breaker.  The Workshop also includes six modules of differing lengths, six assignments generated from the modules, a post-course survey, a contact form, and additional helpful links.  During the synchronous ice-breaker, attendees are informed to link up (after the ice-breaker concludes) with the Workshop Web site to continue the Workshop by watching the introductory video, and to then proceed to the modules.  

Web Site Effectiveness

Training developers should ensure that training events help learners apply relevant  skills and knowledge.  The Workshop format is effective because it contains e-tools including e-mail, a discussion forum using a Whiteboard, a survey, audio and video conferencing, and take-away e-tools such as the attendees' personal portfolios and links to e-tools.  A good instructional design propagates the first phase toward designing e-learning, and "contributes concepts, procedures, and techniques" (Horton, 2006, p. 5) as do the other three phases ("software engineering, media design, and economics" (p. 5).  These considerations were taken under advisement, and the result is the online Workshop.  

By providing registrants with information beforehand of the technical skill, software, and hardware requirements, and the fact that all registrants are teachers, all participants should be able to learn from the Workshop.  The registrants are also provided a contact person before and during the Workshop in case of issues.  The Workshop delivers material useful for an educator considering to teach online, and the e-tools presented have been shown to enhance online learning. 

A review of the Workshop's materials and delivery environment would be conducted before scheduling.  "Rapid prototyping involves learners and/or subject matter experts (SMEs) interacting with prototypes and instructional designers in a continuous review/revision cycle" (McLaren, 2008, p. 5).  The survey responses after the Workshop are sent to the SurveyMonkey Web site at http://www.surveymonkey.com, and can be reviewed and shared with other workshop peers.  The Ice-Breaking Activity, the synchronous e-tool, aids classroom teachers transitioning to online instruction due to its similarity to face-to-face activities.  The participants are also exposed to self-directed learning activities because each module is completed when the participant wishes to do so although the directions indicate all modules, exercises, and survey should be completed by a certain date. 

The training materials supplied include videos on: Knowles' six learning theories, today's adult learner, the Blackboard/Oracle software, creating a learning management system, and delivering an engaging online class.  A 34 minute video is an introduction to the Workshop by Donna Ziegenfuss, University of Utah's Center for Teaching and Learning Excellence.  In the case of a "real" Workshop, the presenter would be the Workshop administrator (in this case, me). 

Conclusion 

The considerations for selecting the most effective tool for the Workshop delivery logically turned toward an e-learning venue.  By providing educators who are considering a transition to online teaching with a hands-on experience such educators gain exposure to the skills and technology used for online teaching.  Gaining such experience prepares such educators with first-hand exposure to the issues facing online students.  An online Workshop can also be presented in a hybrid method, which may aid educators who have not taught online before with a higher comfort level as transitioning to online teaching continues.  E-learning now occurs as soon as a child can reach the computer keyboard.  Challenging students who have such an early experience with technologies that only now (or recently) instructors have been learning remains a major challenge.  A lack of research on identifying best practices for online teaching even while learning paradigms are shifting every moment creates massive paradoxes.  What is effective teaching and effective learning retains an aura of mystery.

References:

Georgiades, J. (2009). Best practices for teaching and presenting live virtual classes and meeting.Retrieved from http://www.parsecinfo.nl/support/whitepapers/best-practice.htm

Horton, W. (2006). E-Learning by Design. John Wiley & Sons: San Francisco, CA: John Wiley       & Sons.

McLaren, A.C. (2008). Designing effective e-learning: Guidelines for practitioners. Distance Learning, (5)2, p. 47. Retrieved from ProQuest.

The Change Learning Theory and Impact for Online Learning

Dirkx, Gilley, & Gilley (2004) wrote that "learning and change are conceptualized largely as cognitive, decontextualized, individualized, and solitary practices" (p. 36).  Learning online typically requires a collaborative effort between instructor and learner, and learner to learner.  As learners increasingly face changes in the knowledge and expertise required in work (to deliver products and services) and school (to deliver assignments), learning and change must become less individualized and solitary as people depend upon each other to ensure the required deliverables.  Learning online requires a change toward collaboration and learning communities in order to gain and sustain new knowledge, and the individual becomes part of the new identity (Dirkx et al., 2004).  Ultimately, without every person "improving his or her respective skills, competencies, knowledge, and attitudes" (Dirkx et al., 2004, p. 41), change and performance improvement cannot happen. 

In order to gain cooperation during the development of online collaborative teams and learning communities, instructors need to incrementally address change with students by reinforcing and supporting learning activities (Dirkx et al., 2004).  Incremental integration of desired changes improves learners' acceptance of change.  Accepting change is critical to completely integrating new knowledge/information. 

"Refreezing" (Dirkx et al., 2004, p. 43) learners' new behaviors brought about by the desired changes then invokes a new culture that can support such learning processes as seen in collaborative learning teams.  Such teams fall short of embracing change because of the "lack of instructor or management support for change; internal conflict for resources; recognition and rewards, organizational overconfidence, lack of critical reflection skills, and the lack of commitment to change" (Dirkx et al., 2004, p. 45).

AIPPG.com (2011) also reported on Lewin's Change Theory: "one’s behavior is related both to one’s personal characteristics and to the social situation in which one finds oneself" (par. 1).  Lewin's concepts included: (1) driving forces, which push in a direction that causes change to occur, facilitate change because they push the person in the desired direction, and cause a shift in the equilibrium     towards change, (2) restraining forces, which counter driving forces, hinder change because they push the person in the opposite direction, and cause a shift in the equilibrium which opposes change, and (3) an equilibrium, which is a state of being where driving forces equal restraining forces and no change occurs, and can be raised or lowered by changes that occur between the driving and restraining forces.  (par. 2)

AIPPG.com (2004) Lewin's change theory includes three stages: the first stage is unfreezing, which is the process which involves finding a method of making it possible for people to let go of an old pattern that was counterproductive in some way, is necessary to overcome the strains of Individual resistance and group conformity, and can be achieved by the use of three methods (increase the driving forces that direct behavior away from the existing situation or status quo, decrease the restraining forces that negatively affect the movement from the existing equilibrium, and finding a combination of the two methods listed above).  The second stage is moving to a new level or changing…involving a process of change in thoughts, feeling, behavior, or all three, that is in some way more liberating or more productive.  The third stage is refreezing, which establishes the change as a new habit, so that it now becomes the 'standard operating procedure'; without this stage of refreezing, it is easy to go back to the old ways.  (par. 2)

Successfully applying Lewin's change theory requires analyzing the driving and restraining forces before a planned change is implemented.  The implication of Lewin's Change Theory for teaching adults online could include a school's preadmission department assessing an online student's technical and writing skills.  Online learners must have the prerequisite skills required for working within a school's online platform.  New learners successfully meeting the skills criteria can begin an online class, and incrementally be given assignments to increase the number of technical and writing skills required for the current and future classes.  By carefully monitoring issues new online students are having, and giving them additional tools if needed, the restraining forces decrease, and the SOP becomes the norm.

Kritsonis (2004) presents additional change theories:  Lippitt’s Phases of Change Theory, which posits that "changes are more likely to be stable if they spread to neighboring systems or to sub-parts of the system immediately affected, and changes are better rooted" (p. 1).  For example, online students frequently have to join in an online class forum.  Being given an assignment that provides students with an opportunity to discuss problems occurring with web searches, all students can learn from each other and the instructor about how to solve those problems.  The new skills learned in how to solve those problems then become the normal and accepted manner. 

Prochaska and DiClemente’s Change Theory posits that "people pass through a series of stages when change occurs, and the stages discussed in their change theory are: precontemplation, contemplation, preparation, action, and maintenance" (Kritsonis, 2004, p. 2). Because progressing through these phases is cyclical, not linear, learners relapse during their efforts to change, and must cycle through the process sometimes repeatedly (Kritsonis, 2004).  Online students who are assigned work teams all have different skillsets for working collaboratively.  A team leader typically emerges, and others begin to follow new processes required of the team as assignments are designed and submitted.  A good team (as monitored by the instructor) assists each other through trouble spots such as with writing, researching, or technical issues.  Some members will achieve completing assignments due to the new advice/processes, and others will not.  Those who do not can be assisted further, patiently, and be given different advice or tools to work through until success is achieved. 

The Social Cognitive Theory presents that "individuals can learn by direct experiences, human dialogue and interaction, and observation.  This theory proposes that behavior change is affected by environmental influences, personal factors, and attributes of the behavior itself" (Kritsonis, 2004, p. 4).  Since learners must exhibit a degree of self-efficacy, be confident in their ability to exhibit the required behavior, and know there is an applicable incentive to perform, such theory can be used by an instructor when an online team must use an online social software program to complete an assignment.  Such a program could be a wiki or blog.  As the team works on developing and using such a program to complete an assignment, all team members observe, interact, and discuss within the program how the project is progressing.  

The Theory of Reasoned Action and Planned Behavior, which posits that a learner's performance of an assigned behavior is ruled by the learner's positive intention to carry out the behavior (Kritsonis, 2004).  This theory also includes the influence from the learner's social environment.   The change theories often make rational sense but can side-track learning progress if learners' feelings, attitudes, past input, and experiences are not considered (Kritsonis, 2004).  Disregarding such elements causes resistance.  Instructors and learners must continue to strive together as technology and cultural issues emerge if change is to be recognized as a much needed part of online learning.

References:

AIPPG.com (2011). Change theory: Kurt Lewin. Retrieved from http://currentnursing.com/nursing_theory/change_theory.html

Dirkx, J., Gilley, J., & Gilley, M.A. (2004). Change theory in CPE and HRD:

Toward a holistic view of learning and change in work. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 6(1), 35-51. Retrieved from ProQuest Education Journals.Press the Escape key to close

Kritsonis, A. (2004-2005). Comparison of change theories. International Journal Of Scholarly Academic Intellectual Diversity, 8(1), 1-7. Retrieved from http://www.nationalforum.com/
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