The Change Learning Theory and Impact for Online Learning

Dirkx, Gilley, & Gilley (2004) wrote that "learning and change are conceptualized largely as cognitive, decontextualized, individualized, and solitary practices" (p. 36).  Learning online typically requires a collaborative effort between instructor and learner, and learner to learner.  As learners increasingly face changes in the knowledge and expertise required in work (to deliver products and services) and school (to deliver assignments), learning and change must become less individualized and solitary as people depend upon each other to ensure the required deliverables.  Learning online requires a change toward collaboration and learning communities in order to gain and sustain new knowledge, and the individual becomes part of the new identity (Dirkx et al., 2004).  Ultimately, without every person "improving his or her respective skills, competencies, knowledge, and attitudes" (Dirkx et al., 2004, p. 41), change and performance improvement cannot happen. 

In order to gain cooperation during the development of online collaborative teams and learning communities, instructors need to incrementally address change with students by reinforcing and supporting learning activities (Dirkx et al., 2004).  Incremental integration of desired changes improves learners' acceptance of change.  Accepting change is critical to completely integrating new knowledge/information. 

"Refreezing" (Dirkx et al., 2004, p. 43) learners' new behaviors brought about by the desired changes then invokes a new culture that can support such learning processes as seen in collaborative learning teams.  Such teams fall short of embracing change because of the "lack of instructor or management support for change; internal conflict for resources; recognition and rewards, organizational overconfidence, lack of critical reflection skills, and the lack of commitment to change" (Dirkx et al., 2004, p. 45).

AIPPG.com (2011) also reported on Lewin's Change Theory: "one’s behavior is related both to one’s personal characteristics and to the social situation in which one finds oneself" (par. 1).  Lewin's concepts included: (1) driving forces, which push in a direction that causes change to occur, facilitate change because they push the person in the desired direction, and cause a shift in the equilibrium     towards change, (2) restraining forces, which counter driving forces, hinder change because they push the person in the opposite direction, and cause a shift in the equilibrium which opposes change, and (3) an equilibrium, which is a state of being where driving forces equal restraining forces and no change occurs, and can be raised or lowered by changes that occur between the driving and restraining forces.  (par. 2)

AIPPG.com (2004) Lewin's change theory includes three stages: the first stage is unfreezing, which is the process which involves finding a method of making it possible for people to let go of an old pattern that was counterproductive in some way, is necessary to overcome the strains of Individual resistance and group conformity, and can be achieved by the use of three methods (increase the driving forces that direct behavior away from the existing situation or status quo, decrease the restraining forces that negatively affect the movement from the existing equilibrium, and finding a combination of the two methods listed above).  The second stage is moving to a new level or changing…involving a process of change in thoughts, feeling, behavior, or all three, that is in some way more liberating or more productive.  The third stage is refreezing, which establishes the change as a new habit, so that it now becomes the 'standard operating procedure'; without this stage of refreezing, it is easy to go back to the old ways.  (par. 2)

Successfully applying Lewin's change theory requires analyzing the driving and restraining forces before a planned change is implemented.  The implication of Lewin's Change Theory for teaching adults online could include a school's preadmission department assessing an online student's technical and writing skills.  Online learners must have the prerequisite skills required for working within a school's online platform.  New learners successfully meeting the skills criteria can begin an online class, and incrementally be given assignments to increase the number of technical and writing skills required for the current and future classes.  By carefully monitoring issues new online students are having, and giving them additional tools if needed, the restraining forces decrease, and the SOP becomes the norm.

Kritsonis (2004) presents additional change theories:  Lippitt’s Phases of Change Theory, which posits that "changes are more likely to be stable if they spread to neighboring systems or to sub-parts of the system immediately affected, and changes are better rooted" (p. 1).  For example, online students frequently have to join in an online class forum.  Being given an assignment that provides students with an opportunity to discuss problems occurring with web searches, all students can learn from each other and the instructor about how to solve those problems.  The new skills learned in how to solve those problems then become the normal and accepted manner. 

Prochaska and DiClemente’s Change Theory posits that "people pass through a series of stages when change occurs, and the stages discussed in their change theory are: precontemplation, contemplation, preparation, action, and maintenance" (Kritsonis, 2004, p. 2). Because progressing through these phases is cyclical, not linear, learners relapse during their efforts to change, and must cycle through the process sometimes repeatedly (Kritsonis, 2004).  Online students who are assigned work teams all have different skillsets for working collaboratively.  A team leader typically emerges, and others begin to follow new processes required of the team as assignments are designed and submitted.  A good team (as monitored by the instructor) assists each other through trouble spots such as with writing, researching, or technical issues.  Some members will achieve completing assignments due to the new advice/processes, and others will not.  Those who do not can be assisted further, patiently, and be given different advice or tools to work through until success is achieved. 

The Social Cognitive Theory presents that "individuals can learn by direct experiences, human dialogue and interaction, and observation.  This theory proposes that behavior change is affected by environmental influences, personal factors, and attributes of the behavior itself" (Kritsonis, 2004, p. 4).  Since learners must exhibit a degree of self-efficacy, be confident in their ability to exhibit the required behavior, and know there is an applicable incentive to perform, such theory can be used by an instructor when an online team must use an online social software program to complete an assignment.  Such a program could be a wiki or blog.  As the team works on developing and using such a program to complete an assignment, all team members observe, interact, and discuss within the program how the project is progressing.  

The Theory of Reasoned Action and Planned Behavior, which posits that a learner's performance of an assigned behavior is ruled by the learner's positive intention to carry out the behavior (Kritsonis, 2004).  This theory also includes the influence from the learner's social environment.   The change theories often make rational sense but can side-track learning progress if learners' feelings, attitudes, past input, and experiences are not considered (Kritsonis, 2004).  Disregarding such elements causes resistance.  Instructors and learners must continue to strive together as technology and cultural issues emerge if change is to be recognized as a much needed part of online learning.

References:

AIPPG.com (2011). Change theory: Kurt Lewin. Retrieved from http://currentnursing.com/nursing_theory/change_theory.html

Dirkx, J., Gilley, J., & Gilley, M.A. (2004). Change theory in CPE and HRD:

Toward a holistic view of learning and change in work. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 6(1), 35-51. Retrieved from ProQuest Education Journals.Press the Escape key to close

Kritsonis, A. (2004-2005). Comparison of change theories. International Journal Of Scholarly Academic Intellectual Diversity, 8(1), 1-7. Retrieved from http://www.nationalforum.com/
Electronic%20Journal%20Volumes/Kritsonis%2C%20Alicia%20Comparison%20of%20Change%20Theories.pdf

Critiquing Literature (Research) Articles for a Dissertation

          Boote and Beile (2005) wrote that pre-dissertation students need to learn the skills required for analyzing and synthesizing research in order to successfully assess, synthesize, and improve research.  Such skills also enable students to select a dynamic dissertation topic, and apply the most appropriate methods for collecting and analyzing data.  Boote and Beile (2005) explained that having the abilities to "build on the scholarship and research of those who have come before us" (p. 3) is known as generativity, which gives meaning, integrity, and sophistication to research efforts.           Boote and Beile (2005) provided guidelines for a literature review, which includes providing an overview of the study, demarcation of what the study is and is not, and rationalizes the stated decisions.  Boote and Beile (2005) wrote that a literature review should extend beyond Creswell's guidelines, and "serve a critical role in gatekeeping, policing, and leading to new productive work, rather than merely mirroring research in a field" (p. 7). 

A literature review should contain "standards such as consistency, parsimony, elegance, and fruitfulness" (Boote and Beile, 2005, p. 7).  Eight elements for a successful literature review include "topicality, comprehensiveness, breadth, exclusion, relevance, currency, availability, and authority" (Boote and Beile, 2005, p. 7).  Boote and Beile (2005) also developed a literature review rubric that assesses "coverage, synthesis, methodology, significance, and rhetoric" (p. 8).  Assembling the following toolbox for evaluating research provides a set of questions based upon prior academic experiences, and from leaders in the field.

Lauer (2004) wrote that policymakers read education research, and attempt to make a decision about whether to trust the results and conclusions, policymakers then need to question if the research should be used to influence education policy, and how to implement changes. Because state and/or local factors, including the cost of implementation, influence policy decisions, researchers must be held accountable for the "quality, coherence, applicability and educational significance of the research" reported.  Conducting an appropriate literature review creates the infrastructure to accountability.

Part I: Toolbox for Evaluating Research Articles

Certain components as noted by Lauer (2004) that represent high quality research espouse a few characteristics such as validity, connection to prior research, ethical standards, and peer review.  The skills required for pre-dissertation students when evaluating prior research permit students (and policymakers) to appraise the trustworthiness of the research being reviewed.  Using the Applied Quick Primer (Exhibit A), and answering the following questions aid in achieving a good appraisal of a research article:

‌‌‌1.      Does the research design match the research questions?

2.      Have acceptable technical standards been adopted during data collection and analyses? 

3.      Does the current study cumulatively add to the current knowledge base?

4.      Does the current study's construction arise from prior research studies and conclusions?

5.      Does the current study impart accepted rules for ethical research thus avoiding

         researcher bias?  

6.      Have the articles under review been peer-reviewed?

7.      Are the researcher's findings coherent, e.g., based upon a theory or conceptual framework?

8.      Have the researcher's findings been replicated, and representative of a body of research?

9.      Does the research study have external validity such that the findings of the study apply to the situation of interest?  (Situation of interest includes the setting, participants, program or treatment.)

10.   If a policy or practice is changed or adopted based on the research results, what difference, if any, will it make to education?  (A research study's educational significance is indicated by the effect size of a program or practice.  Additionally, a meta-analysis reflects the average effect size of several studies, and is a more informative tool to determine educational significance.)

11.   Do the researcher's conclusions infer potentially harmful effects?

         The Board of Regents of the University of Wisconsin System (2011) provided useful

guidelines for reviewing literature: 

12.    Does the Problem Statement address whose problem it is?

13.    What are the potential negative consequences if the study is never conducted?

14.    Is there clarity in the Purpose Statement? 

15.    Does the purpose statement flow directly from the problem statement? 

16.    Do the research questions address the study's purpose and problem? 

17.    Is the research method identified? 

18.    Does the research design (e.g., case study, phenomenology, grounded theory, causal-

 comparative, correlational, quasi-experimental, etc.) answer the research questions? 

19.    Are the variables/constructs and/or phenomenon/concept/idea identified? 

20.    Is the study's specific population identified, including an estimate of the number of participants who will serve as the sample, based upon a power analysis (quantitative/mixed  method) or on design conventions (qualitative)? 

21.    Is the geographic location of the study identified?

         Northcentral University (2012) encapsulates the required elements for a dissertation's  literature review:

22.    Is the literature review an orderly, cohesive, and well-sequenced narrative that relates the problem under investigation to a body of scholarly work?

23.    Does the literature review involve a critical appraisal and synthesis of the relevant published research, including critical appraisals of the research design and methods of key studies?

24.    Does the literature review provide a chronological viewpoint about the research topic with the majority of the literature reviewed sourced from scholarly, peer-reviewed work available in the previous five years?

25.    Does the literature review provide a plentiful number of references to enable impartiality to the study's topic, and provide readers with a wide-range of information about the importance and background of the project?

        Trochim (2006) wrote that reviewing literature requires an inquiry regarding validity. 

26.    Has the literature provided measurements that infer valid conclusions or samples that enable valid inferences?  If so, how is validity stated?

         Mesher (n.d.) wrote that "if an argument is found to be invalid, all judgment must be

suspended because, to be acceptable, an argument must be valid" (par. 1):

27.    Does the researcher's argument represent a valid (acceptable) form?  If so, how is it   

supported?  (Evaluate the content of its premises to assess truthfulness—

verified/justified—or falsehood.)

28.    Does the researcher's argument represent an invalid (unacceptable) form? If so, how?

29.    Are the claims verified or justified because they follow these three rules?  Explain.

         --the claims do not conflict with what one knows or understands as true;

         --the claims do not impose a belief or acceptance of unsupported claims conflicting

           with what one knows or understands as true;

--the claims support an appropriate element of proof.

30.    What do I want to learn from reading this article? 

         Little and Parker (2010) provided a host of questions useful for an article review:  

31.    Is the type of research descriptive (what is there or what do we see), comparative (are findings general or comparable to other elements), or analytical (how does it work or what is the mechanism)?

32.    What are the key points of the article?  Example. 

33.    Is there proof such as data supporting the article's conclusions?  Example. 

34.    Is there a superior degree of evidence, and any limitations noted in the research methodology? 

35.    What is important about the researcher's conclusions? 

36.    Does the research follow the steps of the research process in a logical manner?   

37.    Were the participants fully informed about the nature of the research?  

38.    Was the autonomy/confidentiality of the participants guaranteed? 

39.    Were the participants protected from harm? 

40.    Was ethical permission granted for the study? 

41.    Was the data gathering instrument described?  Was the instrument appropriate?  How was it developed?  Were reliability and validity testing undertaken and the results discussed? Was a pilot study undertaken?

42.    If a hypothesis was identified, was it supported? 

43.    Was a recommendation for further research made?

         Guidelines from Coughian, Cronin, & Ryan (2008, p. 739) provided an additional idea for critiquing research relative to the qualitative research manner:

44.    Were credibility, dependability, transferability and goodness discussed? 

         The Methodist Hospital Employee Intranet (2012) presented guidelines for critiquing a literature review for a mixed-methods research project although most guidelines have already been touched upon:

45.    Is there an integrated summary of the current knowledge base regarding the research problem, or does the literature review contain opinion or anecdotal articles without any synthesis or summary of the whole?

References:

 

Board of Regents of the University of Wisconsin System. (2011). The writer's handbook: Learn how to write a review of literature. Retrieved from http://writing.wisc.edu/Handbook/ReviewofLiterature.html

falseBoote, D.N. & Beile, P. (2005, August/September). Scholars before researchers: On the centrality of the dissertation literature review in research preparation. Educational Researcher, 34(6), 3-15. Retrieved from ProQuest.

Coughian, M., Cronin, P., & Ryan, F. (2008). Step-by-step guide to critiquing research. Part 1: quantitative research. Retrieved from http://lancashirecare.files.wordpress.com/2008/03/step-by-step-guide-to-criti-research-part-1-quantitative-reseawrch.pdf

Coughian, M., Cronin, P., & Ryan, F. (2008). Step-by-step guide to critiquing research. Part 2: qualitative research. Retrieved from http://lancashirecare.files.wordpress.com/2008/03/2007-step-by-step-guide-to-critiquing-research-part-2-qualitative-research.pdf

Lauer, P.A. (2004). How do I know if the research warrants policy changes? Retrieved from http://www.ecs.org/html/educationIssues/Research/primer/researchwarrants.asp 

Lauer, P.A. (2004). Research utility assessment guide. Retrieved from http://www.ecs.org/html/educationIssues/Research/primer/rubric.pdf

Little, J.W., & Parker, R. (2010). How to read a scientific paper. Retrieved from http://www.biochem.arizona.edu/classes/bioc568/papers.htm#reading

Mesher, D. (n.d.). Mission critical: San Jose University critical thinking web page. Retrieved from http://www.sjsu.edu/depts/itl/graphics/main.html  

Methodist Hospital Employee Intranet. (2012). Mixed-methods research critique template. Retrieved from http://methodistintranet.fasthealth.com/docs/mixed_crit_template_school.pdf

Northcentral University. (2012). 2011 Dissertation handbook. Retrieved from http://learners.ncu.edu/ncu_diss/default.aspx?attendance=Y

Thank you, Father God, for Resurrection Day!

See my other blog...http://payingjesusgifttforward.wordpress.com/

Thank you so much, Father God, for the giving of Your Son for our sins, and for raising Him to Life three days later! I wait for His final coming soon. From BibleInfo.com:

The Scripture affirms that Jesus Christ was resurrected from the dead. It’s in the Bible, Matthew 28:5-6, NKJV. “But the angel answered and said to the women, “Do not be afraid, for I know that you seek Jesus who was crucified. He is not here; for He is risen, as He said. Come, see the place where the Lord lay.’”

The resurrection happened exactly as the prophets said it would. It’s in the Bible, I Corinthians 15:3-4, TLB. “I passed on to you right from the first what had been told to me, that Christ died for our sins just as the Scriptures said He would, and that He was buried, and that three days afterwards He arose from the grave just as the prophets foretold.”

The resurrection of Jesus is the central truth of the Christian faith. It’s in the Bible, I Corinthians 15:14-17, NIV. “And if Christ has not been raised, our preaching is useless and so is your faith. More than that, we are then found to be false witnesses about God, for we have testified about God that He raised Christ from the dead… . And if Christ has not been raised, your faith is futile; you are still in your sins.”

What does the Bible teach about our resurrection from death? Our resurrection is certain because of Christ’s resurrection. It’s in the Bible, I Corinthians 15:12-14, NIV. “But if it is preached that Christ has been raised from the dead, how can some of you say that there is no resurrection of the dead? If there is no resurrection of the dead, then not even Christ has been raised. And if Christ has not been raised, our preaching is useless and so is your faith.”

Our resurrected bodies will be different than our present ones and they will be eternal. It’s in the Bible, I Corinthians 15:51-53, TLB. “But I am telling you this strange and wonderful secret: we shall not all die, but we shall all be given new bodies! It will all happen in a moment, in the twinkling of an eye, when the last trumpet is blown. For there will be a trumpet blast from the sky, and all the Christians who have died will suddenly become alive, with new bodies that will never, never die; and then we who are still alive shall suddenly have new bodies too. For our earthly bodies, the ones we have now that can die, must be transformed into heavenly bodies that cannot perish but will live forever.”

Because of Christ resurrection, He has the power to resurrect dead relationships and those who are spiritually dead. It’s in the Bible, Philippians 3:10 NIV. “I want to know Christ and the power of His resurrection and the fellowship of sharing in His sufferings, becoming like Him in His death.” Ephesians 2:1,4,5, NIV says, “As for you, you were dead in your transgressions and sins…But because of His great love for us, God, who is rich in mercy, made us alive with Christ even when we were dead in transgressions—it is by grace you have been saved.”

We can be sure of victory in all things, because of Christ’s victory over sin and death in His resurrection. It’s in the Bible, 1 Corinthians 15:55-58, NKJV. “ O Death, where is your sting? O Hades, where is your victory?” The sting of death is sin, and the strength of sin is the law. But thanks be to God, who gives us the victory through our Lord Jesus Christ. Therefore, my beloved brethren, be steadfast, immovable, always abounding in the work of the Lord, knowing that your labor is not in vain in the Lord”.
http://www.bibleinfo.com/en/topics/resurrection

Pros and Cons of Using Second Life as a Learning Technology

          I decided I wanted to experience the Second World as an avatar ("Juleeah Lavender") in order to explore some educational areas, and other parts of the vast Second Life frontier. I decided to use the avatar so I could experience what a student would experience. I needed to do this in order to judge anything about Second Life. I was not impressed when the system crashed, or when the avatar's shoes were not functioning correctly. I especially was not impressed when I was in a public zone, and two female avatars ran around me seemingly after each other, and were using very large pistols in the process. On a positive note, when I was near other Avatars, one or two sent me an IM to let me know they were there to help; these "helpers" were from the company tech teams. After two or three hours, I could actually walk almost straight, and fly without hitting too many buildings. That was a little exhilerating, and actually created a sensation of flying. I could not get some other features to work, which were placed by other participants such as a "touch me" screen to start a hologram feature. Another person had placed some features to buy a "how to make or print" parts of a book. I "teleported" to several educational sites, which had tech tools for teaching. After a few hours, I did become quite tired of trying to learn about how to use the system.

        During the Second World experience, although I was not partaking of a lesson or in a learning situation, I kept thinking that students would have to undergo the same orientation that I did. I kept working in the system because in trying to evaluate the Second World, I did not want to give up too soon because I could be losing a valuable tool for my students. I did not want that to be the case unless I worked hard at learning the program. With just trying to evaluate the Second World in 2-3 days, I am not convinced yet that it is either valuable nor invaluable. My goal is to teach online undergraduate students, not younger students (who have already used Second World for a long time). My goal is not to impose massive frustration upon my students (not to say that our instructor did this to us…we are merely learning about new technological tools). 
         My opinion is that instead of having my students spend time designing an Avatar's many features, learning to move it, transport, buy clothes, get freebies, and so forth, so they could afterward participate in a lesson from me or someone else, I would be better off in using this tool for educating myself as a teacher, which the system provides in some ways. I would also be very skeptical of using Second World for a universally designed learning scenario for any age student: even if a physically challenged person in the real world could walk in Second Life, there are many emotional, physical, and cultural challenges which may be erased temporarily, but re-emerge after logging off Second Life. Are our children mature enough to adapt to this depth of change? I conducted some research and found some pros and cons of Second Life written by Valerie in 2008, which was posted at the Educational Development Centre Blog.
          Cons include a long learning curve, difficulty in managing student behavior and interruptions from the real world, the fact that a monetary cost frequently emerges, communications have not been perfected, increased difficulty in ensuring students take their school work seriously, impaired ability for students to reconnect to their real world, and public areas are "uncouth" or "raunchy" – it is not just a space for education, but one in which both bad and good exist.
          Pros include amazing and successful possibilities for learning through development of virtual activities, world of physical limitations – enabling a diverse and creative set of activities, greater connectivity and engagement in distance education classes, a tool used for entertainment becomes also one of education – meeting students where they are and making learning engaging and enjoyable for them, ability to have access to a virtual classroom in cases when physical teaching is not possible, highly adaptable, user created, and users retain intellectual property to their creations, utilizes experiential learning and caters to different learning methods.
         Mmmmmm….more pros than cons. This must mean there are more positives than negatives! What weight do we assign each pro and con, and who devises those weights? For example, one pro is not equal to one con; in fact, one pro may carry five times the importance than the one con.  I reviewed about 20-25 Second Life videos, and almost all were entitled "Educational". My opinion is that this technology could add some value as a supplement to the curriculum, but only as a supplement. My vote is still out on whether I would accept and implement Second Life material into any age curriculum. My instincts after seeing and experiencing first-hand the virtual environment of Second Life are to suspend using it until I can investigate it much further, and see empirical data supporting it.

Reference: 

Educational Development Centre Blog (2008, February 5). Second life in higher education: Surveying pros and cons. Retrieved May 13, 2010, from http://edc.carleton.ca/blog/index.php/
2008/02/05/second-life-in-higher-education-surveying-pros-and-cons/

Suggestions for Good Academic Writing

As a doctoral learner, discovering professors' expectations for submitted assignments can only be achieved by a thorough knowledge of the university's and professors' writing rudiments.  Doctoral learners' pre-assessment of these rudiments requires an in-depth review of peer-reviewed articles, using references such as the American Psychological Association's (APA) Manual, and other reliable resources.  In addition, gaining and applying such knowledge when writing affords doctoral learners opportunities for introspection as well as intellectual and academic growth as degree requirements are further achieved.   

      This paper presents an analysis of (1) how academic professionals gain insight into good academic writing, (2) common mistakes by academic writers, (3) criticisms against poor academic writing, and (4) solutions for avoiding poor academic writing.  Analyzing and critiquing sources, which elaborate upon good writing mechanics as provided by the APA and other reliable references, creates a standardized across-the-board utility when academic writing is required and produced for evaluation.  Knowledge of common writing mistakes, and how to avoid such mistakes provides writers with the basic and advanced skills required for today's doctoral learners' writing activities.  

Academic Professionals' Identification of Good Academic Writing

           Completing years of post-secondary education, and gaining practice as an academic professional, does not necessarily enable academic professionals and students to have an ability to discern good academic writing.  However, if academic professionals and students supplement reading and writing skills by reference materials such as the 6^th Edition of the American Psychological Association's (APA) Manual (2010), the web sites of The Little Brown Handbook and The Online English Grammar Guide as well as from libraries, and other reliable sources, significant reading and writing expertise is gained.  Furthermore, academic professionals and students who seek resources appraised by peers gain assurance that the material presented is reliable.  However, it is of the utmost importance that when reviewing such material that one impose critical thinking skills, and not assume that what is written and peer-reviewed is necessarily correct.

           For example, Anonymous' (2010) composition recounts examples from the Bulwer-Lytton Fiction Contest, the brain-child of the English Department at San Jose State University sponsoring the contest, which is "a whimsical literary competition that challenges entrants to compose the opening sentence to the worst of all possible novels" (para 6).  While this article is locatable in the ProQuest database, the article is not peer-reviewed nor is Kelly's (1999) or Smith's (1999) articles according to ProQuest.  However, Kelly (1999) notes that Professor Sokal, a New York University physics professor, was "published in a respected journal, Social Text, (which) was thoroughly researched and footnoted, but was essentially nonsense" (para 3).  Professor Sokal (Kelly, 1999) purposely wrote his article as a test for the staff at Social Text to see if his thesis would be challenged, and remarkably, it was not.  While peer-reviewed articles offer academic professionals a means to evaluate good academic writing, academic professionals must frequently evaluate non-peer-reviewed student compositions, which requires the use of expertise attained using other means such as from the APA (2010) as previously mentioned.     

Common Writing Mistakes of Academic Writers

            Academic writers' common writing mistakes include attributes such as dense, "obscure, often incomprehensible writing" (Kelly, 1999, para 2), "jargon-filled" rhetoric (para 11), and "incomprehensible sentence structure" (Smith, 1999, para 1).  In addition, academic writers frequently avoid authenticity while writing because it "requires more courage and more hard work than being educated since it can only be achieved by standing alone from, and by becoming independent of, those surrounding communal voices and texts" (Badley, 2008, p. 364).  Badley (2008) also wrote that "less proficient writers tend to write syntheses by simply borrowing sentences and connecting information from each source, without elaboration and integration" (p. 422).  Badley's (2008) research demonstrated that "When considering top-level (composition) structure, paragraphing, topic sentences and use of conclusion, students’ pre-test written syntheses scarcely met the structural criteria of a good exposition" (p. 434 ). 

Criticisms of Poor Academic Writers

           Smith (1999) wrote that "scholars (are) increasingly making themselves irrelevant" (para 7).  In an attempt to fit ideological agendas, academic writers change the structure of words and sentences, which distorts meaning (Smith, 1999).  Kelly (1999) indicates that a "major factor in tolerance of bad writing has been a lack of hard-nosed editing by academic journals" (para 18).  More up-to-date evaluations of academic writing provides insight about whether improvements in academic writing prevail or not since 1999.  For example, Addison and McGee (2010) wrote that "college faculty are not adequately preparing students for required writing tasks in the private or government sector" (p. 164), and recommend that "an online peer-reviewed journal (be) established that allows for more timely and detailed reports than possible with print publications" (p. 171).  A preponderance for academic writers to make writing mistakes continues as they create "incomprehensible writing and factionalism, resulting even more in their diminishment and incoherence" (Smith, 1999, para 2).

Avoiding Poor Academic Writing

            The focus of good academic writing is well stated by James Cook University (2011): "Good writing is unambiguous. The reader does not have to make a choice about what the writer possibly means" (James Cook University, 2011, para 24), and ambiguousness is avoided by using concrete rather than abstract terms (Australia's James Cook University, 2011).  The James Cook University (2011) summarizes other core principles and characteristics for academic writing.  Core principles include a "reader-centred approach, outlining and drafting, a clear layout, logical presentation of material, pre-emption of reader’s questions, parallel structure, concise writing, precise details and information as well as good grammar, spelling and punctuation" (para 6).  Characteristics of academic writing include that "all statements can be supported by evidence; paragraphs have a single, but developed, theme; paragraphs begin with a theme sentence; (contain) neutral language; omit slang and jargon; avoid pronouns; (have a) judicious use of adjectives; (contain) precise information, verbs and word choice" (James Cook University, 2011, para 9). 

            Addison and McGee (2010) further indicated that college faculty identified "the five most important characteristics of good writing as…organization…analysis data/ideas/arguments, and use of supporting evidence" (p. 166).  Supporting the five characteristics is the systematic step-by-step writing process, which includes prewriting, higher order concerns, lower order concerns, and editing.  By learning and applying proven writing processes, poor academic writing is avoided.

Conclusion

            This paper presented an analysis of (1) how academic professionals gain insight into good academic writing, (2) common mistakes by academic writers, (3) criticisms against poor academic writing, and (4) solutions for avoiding poor academic writing.  Analyzing and critiquing sources, which elaborate upon good writing mechanics as provided by the APA and other reliable references, creates a standardized across-the-board utility when academic writing is required and produced for evaluation.  Knowledge of common writing mistakes, and how to avoid such mistakes provides writers with the basic and advanced skills required for today's doctoral learners' writing activities.  

References:

Addison, J., & McGee, S.J. (2010, September). Writing in high school/writing in college: Research trends and future directions. College Composition and Communication, (62)1, p. 147. Retrieved January 9, 2011, from ProQuest.
        
Anonymous (2010, April 3). Robert Rector: Bad writing gets its just reward. San Gabriel Valley Tribune. Retrieved January 8, 2011, from ProQuest.

American Psychological Association (2010). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association, 6^th Ed. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association.

Badley, G. (2008). Developing (authentic?) academic writers. Quality Assurance in Education, (16), 4, p. 363. Retrieved January 10, 2011, from ProQuest.

James Cook University (2011). What is effective academic writing? Retrieved January 9, 2011, from https://egrs.jcu.edu.au/workshops/

academic-writing-workshops/what-is-effective-academic-writing

 

Kelly, R. (1999, April 8). Bad blood over bad writing: Critics say US academic language has become so convoluted that it is largely incomprehensible to the point where argument is becoming impossible. The Irish Times, p. 15. Retrieved January 8, 2011, from Proquest.

 
Smith, D. (1999, March 7). Academic: When the writing is bad, ideas get lost. Winston - Salem Journal, p. 17. Retrieved January 8, 2011, from ProQuest

Teaching and Learning Paradigms for Successful Online Learning

To effectively achieve successful adult online learning, best practices based upon empirical research must continue to evolve via new paradigms.  Until such time that research is sufficiently conducted and reported, considerations about the most critical paradigms required for successful online teaching and learning for the adult student can be sourced from the opinions in recent literature as presented herein.  The prevailing paradigm includes online teaching and learning practices that places more responsibility upon the learner.

For example, today's online teaching and learning paradigms encompass skills as Dabbagh (2007) explains that include "online learners (who) must be ready to share their work, interact within small and large groups in virtual settings, and collaborate on projects online or otherwise risk isolation in a community growing increasingly dependent on connectivity and interaction" (par. 9).  Learners' preparations for online learning include a strong comfort level with writing, using Web technologies, and computer proficiency (Dabbagh, 2007).  Furthermore, online learners should have acquired “self-discipline, self-monitoring, self-initiative, and self-management, which are characteristics of self-regulated or self-directed learning" (Dabbagh, 2007, par. 10), which are especially critical due to the physical absence of an instructor.  

A Community of Practice (COP) is a "pedagogical model grounded in a theory of learning as a social process and implemented in an online context through knowledge networks, asynchronous learning networks, and other Internet and Web-based collaborative and communication technologies" (Dabbagh, 2007, par. 10).  An online learner's "need for affiliation manifests itself in online learning environments" (Dabbagh, 2007, par. 10), which is an example of a COP.  Knowledge-sharing is recognized as intellectual capital.  Although online learning typically includes skills that enable learners to "(a) act competently on their own; (b) have confidence in their knowledge, skills, and performance; and (c) learn how to create and manage a personal presence" (Dabbagh, 2007, par. 13), learners' needs for affiliation are paramount to achieving  success in an online learning environment.  The collaborative skills required for online learning include "social learning skills, discursive or dialogical skills, self and group evaluation skills, and reflection skills" (Dabbagh, 2007, par. 15). 

The Illinois Online Network and the Board of Trustees of the University of Illinois (2010) wrote that successful online teaching and learning provides an accessibility to technology, and online instructors who promote a comfortable learning atmosphere.  A powerful element in today's online learning paradigms ensures that curriculums are developed or converted according to online learning needs.

Castro (2012) mirrors Dabbagh's (2007) comments above in that teachers and students no longer exist in the online learning environment as individuals but instead as "participants in a dynamic and collective system of meaning" (p. 165).  Furthermore, the parameters of how learners and administration view online teachers should also include teachers as "images, objects, events, encounters, and so on" (Castro, 2012, p. 165).  "If learning exists at multiple scales, from cellular to cultural, then so does teaching" (Castro, 2012, p. 165).

Further support of the paradigm that addresses learners' increased participation in their learning is noted by Tu, Sujo-montes, Yen, Chan, & Blocher (2012) who wrote that "learners have freedom to access, create, and recreate their learning content; and they have opportunities to interact outside of a learning system" (p. 13).  Educators focusing on “social, open, and network aspects have integrated various Web 2.0 technologies to support their existing online instruction in a learning management system (LMS)" (Tu et al., 2012, p. 13).  Tu et al. (2012) remarked that "integrating multiple tools simultaneously is the best strategy for infusing teaching and learning paradigms" (p. 13). 

Consequently, Tu et al. (2012) noted that social networking tools represent new teaching and learning potentialities, and have resulted in a "fundamental shift in the way students learn, consume, and produce new artifacts" (p. 13).  Web 2.0 integration has required a modification  from a "more teacher and institution-centered mindset to more distributed, personalized effort and collaboration" (Tu et al., 2012, p. 13).  Tu et al. (2012) also recommended that to avoid the  potential for any disconcerting impact on learning using Web 2.0 integration, teachers can use Open Network Learning Environments (ONLE), and ask students to construct their own Personal Learning Environments (PLE), which can support an effective open network for communicating, interacting, and collaborating.  Learning Management Systems that include a PLE and ONLE  enable learners and educational institutions to successfully "prepare competent global digital citizens (who can) create, share, and collaborate digital learning content and resources in global communities regardless of their socioeconomic status and geographic locations" (Tu et al., 2012, p. 18).

Reflecting perspectives as noted above, Shovein, Huston, Fox, & Damazo (2005) wrote that teachers can influence "an awakening awareness" (par. 10) in others when the learning environment possesses a "milieu of freedom and gives greater than usual prominence to educational experiences in which personal involvement is magnified and intensified" (par. 10).  In continuing support of the above successful teaching and learning theories, Shovin et al. (2005)  wrote that current paradigms include elements wherein "students and teachers are responsible together for education, students are responsible for critically considering reality, the teacher relinquish(es) control and exchanges the role of narrator for one of student among students" (par. 11).  Teachers can experience new freedoms by "consulting with and by engaging students in meaningful dialogue" (Shovein et al., 2005, par. 13). 

New teaching and learning paradigms using technology have transferred teachers into the role as mediator and coach using encouragement to aid learners in developing knowledge more actively.  Shovein, Huston, Fox, & Damazo (2005) indicated that teachers are increasingly challenged due to a heavier responsibility for engaging and encouraging "authentic, meaningful dialogue that promotes caring in all learning situations, regardless of the activities or technology used to support the pedagogy" (par. 22).  In fact, a prominent challenge for teachers is to not find the "best" e-tool but finding the highest quality answers to the many "learning challenges inherent in a global, information-based society" (par. 23).  Answering challenges associated with today's online teaching and learning technologies that have affected the increased proliferation of learners wanting to be more responsible and participatory in their own learning achievements have impacted the degree of success in yesterday's paradigms, which are evolving into today's and tomorrow's teaching and learning paradigms.

References:

Castro, J.C. (2012, Winter). Learning and teaching art: Through social media. Studies in Art Education, 53(2), 152. Retrieved from ProQuest Research Library.

Dabbagh, N. (2007). The online learner: Characteristics and pedagogical implications. Retrieved from  http://www.citejournal.org/vol7/iss3/general/article1.cfm

Illinois Online Network and the Board of Trustees of the University of Illinois. (2010). Weaknesses of online learning. Retrieved from http://www.ion.uillinois.edu/resources/tutorials/overview/weaknesses.asp

Shovein, J., Huston, C., Fox, S., & Damazo, B. (2005, November-December). Challenging traditional teaching and learning paradigms: Online learning and emancipatory teaching. Retrieved from http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb3317/is_6_26/ai_n29227982/pg_3/?tag=content;col1

Tu, C., Sujo-montes, L., Yen, C., Chan, J., & Blocher, M. (2012, May-June). The integration of

personal learning environments & open network learning environments. TechTrends,

56(3), 13-19. Retrieved from ProQuest Education Journals.