Andragogical Principle: Motivation--Implications for Designing and Delivering Online Teaching

Abstract

Motivational influencers affecting adult online learners are complex, and sometimes obscure especially considering that every adult’s quality of learning is individual, and impacted by experential effects.  Furthermore, every adult uses a different learning theory.  Accepting that instructional best practices, and andragogical (self-directed learning) principles are going to influence learning according to past results can cause an extraordinary level of disappointment for the instructor and adult learner.  With online learning technologies rapidly changing, yesterday’s andragogical principles cannot be expected to motivate students to learn as expected by even the most expert online teacher.  Instructors who fail to analyze, adapt, implement, and reflect upon the impact from e-tools can fail before they begin.

Motivation of the Adult Learner

Why is external motivation needed for an adult to learn?  Is not an internal motivation to gain knowledge enough for an adult to achieve the intended learning?  As Thompson and Deis (2004) explain, learning is an “iterative, dynamic process of change, dependent on the learner’s self-efficacy to take responsibility for his or her own learning” (p. 108).  Self-motivaters can rapidly cause adults to become discouraged such as when learning progress is slower than the adult learner’s expectations, the instructor’s support does not provide the minimum required by the learner or unexpected personal and/or professional responsibilities intercede periodically, which impacts learning efficiency at differing degrees (Thompson and Deis, 2004).  Supporting a good level of self-motivators is achieved by learning activities that include joint input from a facilitator and a learner using reflection and analysis, integrating new activities, and then repeating reflection and analysis (Thompson and Deis, 2004).  Following below is an explanation of the andragogical principles, motivational concerns applicable to the andragogical principles, and andragogical principles’ implications for online design and delivery of adult learning.

Principles of Andragogy as a Learning Theory Explained

Thompson and Deis (2004) summarized Knowles’ principles of andragogy: adult learners’ perception of self-concept transposes from dependence to self-directed, experential knowledge increasingly contributes to a student’s learning resources, developmental tasks required for a learner’s social identity are grounded by the learner’s readiness to learn, and time orientation related to new knowledge application shifts from a “use-later” application to “need-to-use-now” application, which causes a transition of the learner’s orientation of subject-centeredness to the preferred problem-centeredness orientation.  Motivational constraints arise as adults begin transitioning toward self-direction and a problem-centered orientation, begin applying experential knowledge to new learning, a learner’s readiness to learn becomes muffled, and timeliness for applying new knowledge degrades.  These transitional elements affecting each learner at differing degrees must be addressed when designing and delivering online teaching if learning activities successfully adapt to the learner’s needs.

Motivational Concerns Applicable to Andragogical Principles

Thompson and Deis (2004) assert that assessments provide adults with an evaluative tool, which provides motivation, feedback, self-awareness, empowerment, and a “richer, deeper learning experience” (p. 110).  Assessment supports another of the andragogical principles, which is that “developmental tasks required for a learner’s social identity are grounded by the learner’s readiness to learn” (Thompson and Deis, 2004, p. 108).  If developmental tasks inclusive of assessment components are not included in the online adult learners’ curriculum, there is a very significant lost opportunity for motivating learning.  Thompson and Deis (2004) wrote that the andragogical principle referring to the transition from theory to practice with a focus on problems rather than content explains that “successful education will relate theory to practice, and advocate bringing ‘real world’ opportunities into the classroom” (p. 109).

Clardy (2001) presented an alternative approach that “seeks to avoid the demotivating conditions of pedagogy and the denuded substance of andragogy through the use of (synergogical) self-directing learning teams” (p. 20), which use “highly participative, self-directed learning activities” (Clardy, 2001, p. 20).  Clardy (2001) wrote that andragogical principles may provide increased motivation.  However, improved motivation results in decreased “substantive content and learning…(and) implies a uniformity to adult learner needs and motivation that masks important individual differences between learners” (p. 20) as well as “imputes to adults more capability for and interest in self-directed learning than is likely” (p. 20).

Clardy’s (2001) analysis of the andragogical principle is based purely upon a review of Knowles’ and other literature rather than an empirical study.  Clardy (2001) wrote that Knowles’ andragogical theory inadequately identified types of adult learning situations” (p. 31), is resplendent with “radical subjectivism” (p. 20), and suffers from a number of problems in explaining learning effectiveness for adults.  Because improved motivation comes a decrease in “substantive content and learning” (Clardy, 2001, p. 20), Clardy (2001) suggests, and this writer agrees, that further study of the andragogical principles should be examined further.  Whether labeled andragogy or synergogy, strategies to motivate adult learners should not  contradict with learning principles that result in poorer learning as Clardy (2001) suggested.

Houde (2006) wrote that scholars increasingly propose that Knowles’ atheoretical andragogical principles, which are grounded by “observation and experience, rather than logical postulates and/or empirical research” (p. 90), and considered an “artifact from a mechanistic intellectual frame” (p. 90), be validated.  Houde (2006) recommends that validation be accomplished by using two theories: “socioemotional selectivity (focusing on individuals’ relationship with time, goals and emotions), and the self-determination theory (a needs-based theory that proposes an inherent growth drive centering on…autonomy, competence and relatedness)” (p. 90).  Houde (2006) explains that the andragogical principle relative to motivation assumes that adults’ external motivators consist of improved jobs, increased salaries, and so forth.  Internal motivators include aspirations for enhanced job satisfaction, improved self-esteem, quality of life, and so forth.  Houde’s (2006) article addresses the importance of validating the andragogical principle identified as motivation.  By using the two theories noted above to identify and assess tools for motivating adult learners, instructors can integrate improved and well grounded teaching methods to gain advanced learning.

Andragogical Principles’ Implications for Online Design and Delivery of Adult Learning

“Superior andragogical learning conditions should motivate the learners to feel a need to learn” (Thompson and Deis, 2004, p. 108).  Those learning conditions should enable “maximum flexibility and student self-governance” (Thompson and Deis, 2004, p. 108).  Therefore, the design and delivery of online curriculums should provide opportunities to gain self-governance, which mirrors the andragogical principle that supports an adult learner’s self-concept transitioning from one of dependence to self-directed.  Such an opportunity would enable learners to plan and process assignments without using mandated guidelines as to how the learning outcomes would be achieved.  For example, “domain-oriented design environments…allow learners (who are) provided contextualized support to engage in their own problems, and exploit breakdowns as opportunities for learning” (EduTech Wiki, 2009, par. 3).  The domain-oriented design allows learners to “create new artifacts and understand existing ones, they tailor instruction to serve the accomplishment of the task at hand, and they do this without disrupting or otherwise interfering with the task” (Fischer, n.d., par. 3).

Thompson and Deis (2004) indicated that another andragogical principle underscores a need for curriculums that “allow learners to rely on themselves as resources of learning” (p. 108).  Instructors who automatically provide resources and internet links to learners with directions to integrate information from those resources to the assigned activities opposes one of the andragogical principles: learners should increasingly contribute experential knowledge to the learner’s portfolio of resources.  Consequently, the design and delivery of e-learning should provide for use of the learner’s previous experiences and practical skills.  For example, a case study presented on web pages, and discussed in conferencing groups, draws upon learners’ past experiences, designed to appeal to the learners’ interests and experiences, and ties into the learning concepts (Illinois Online Network, 2010).

Thompson and Deis (2004) advocated that “successful education relates theory to practice, and advocates bringing ‘real world’ opportunities into the classroom” (p. 109).  The “real world” opportunities are provided to adult learners through “simulations, cases, technology, and collaborative learning opportunities between educational institutions and business” (p. 109). Any of these examples or a mix can be integrated into the online learning environment.

An article by Gibbons and Wentworth (2001) advises that e-tools using a discussion forum encourages critical thinking, and ties into “nontraditional learners’ current life tasks and problems” (par. 16).  Non-traditional e-learning techniques and processes that support the development of self-motivation in the adult learner significantly influences academic achievement (Gibbons and Wentworth, 2001).  Asynchronous discussion forums provide learners with more of an opportunity to reflect and revise before responding to peers.

A study by Cercone (2008) provides 13 recommendations for developing online courses based upon the andragogical principles.  For example, an instructional design that supports learners’ active involvement in learning includes activities that require learners to formulate their learning objectives, and learn skills of inquiry, decision-making, and self-regulation.  Embedding learning content within authentic context, requiring learners to create and problem-solve, periodically reflecting upon and revising learning goals, infusing conflicting theoretical resources into activities, requiring reflection about summarized experiences, and using learning contracts, case studies, and simulations to stimulate self-directed learning all aid in motivating adult learners (Cercone, 2008).

“Life is as much about determination as it is about motivation” (Pew, 2007, p. 22).  Today’s instructors should approach teaching from “an informed, deliberate, strategic and tactical perspective (to) improve the educational setting for both educators and learners” (Pew, 2007, p. 22).  Pew’s (2007) comment that “self-reliance is probably the most enduring source of motivation” (p. 23) efficiently describes that students able to rely upon themselves create their own elements of motivation.  Deriving a sense of self-regulated power from internal sources is available to students or instructors in the form of internal motivation.  The power merely needs plucking.

Conclusion

The remarks above address the motivational attributes relative to Knowles’ andragogical principles, and implications that the principles carry for online course design and delivery.  Most significantly, online instruction must influence adult learners to evolve into self-directed learners able to infuse experiential influencers into new knowledge that is germane to their use-now applications.  Gaining insight from adult online students who successfully demonstrate a higher level of evolvement as self-directed learners could provide instructors and instructional designers with invaluable information by using the learners’ perspectives.

References:

Cercone, K. (2008). Characteristics of adult learners with implications for online learning design. AACE Journal,16(2),137-159. Retrieved from http://training.gaincc.org/pluginfile.php/1014/mod_resource/content/0/adult_learners_online.pdf

Clardy, A. (2006). Andragogy: Adult learning and education at its best? Retrieved from http://grad.towson.edu/program/master/hurd-hrdg-ms/files/Andragogy%20Adult%20Learning.doc.

EduTech Wiki. (2009). Self-directed learning. Retrieved from http://edutechwiki.unige.ch/en/Self-directed_learning

Fischer, G. (n.d.). Learning opportunities provided by domain-oriented design environments. Retrieved from http://scholar.googleusercontent.com/scholar?q=cache:1jWoieMK2qYJ:scholar.google.com/&hl=en&as_sdt=0,33

Gibbons, H.S., & Wentworth, G.P. (2001). Andrological and pedagogical training differences for online instructors. Online Journal of Distance Learning Administration, (IV)III. Retrieved from http://www.westga.edu/~distance/ojdla/fall43/gibbons_wentworth43.html

Houde, J. (2006). Andragogy and motivation: An examination of the principles of andragogy through two motivation theories. Retrieved from ERIC. (ED492652)

Illinois Online Network. (2010). Instructional strategies for online courses. Retrieved from http://www.ion.uillinois.edu/resources/tutorials/pedagogy/instructionalstrategies.asp

Pew, S. (2007). Andragogy and pedagogy as foundational theory for student motivation in higher education. InSight: A Collection of Faculty Scholarship, (2), 14-25. Retrieved from http://www.insightjournal.net/Volume2/Andragogy%20and%20Pedagogy%20as%20Foundational%20Theory%20for%20Student%20Motivation%20in%20Higher%20Education.pdf

Thompson, M.A., & Deis, M. (2004). Andragogy for adult learners in higher education. Allied Academies International Conference, 9(1), 107-112. Retrieved from http://www.sbaer.uca.edu/research/allied/2004/financialStudies/pdf/33.pdf

Strategies for Creating a Social Presence within an Online Adult Learning Environment

Joyce and Brown (2009) explained that "faculty who want to extend or further develop relationships with their students may find it easier by accessing the tools used by the students…using tools already familiar with students may mean the difference between instruction and engagement” (par. 19). Such relationship-building appears more successful when employing an increased facility of synchronous communications, the design and inclusion of a forming stage, greater emphasis on the proviso of guidelines for achieving good online communication, and reducing the belief by learners of isolation. Joyce and Brown (2009) further explained that learners fall into two groups: an outsider "who is uncomfortable with the medium being used during the course and is not confident in its use” (par. 26), and an insider who “is comfortable with the medium being used during the course and is confident in its use” (par. 26). As the feeling of community becomes stronger, the feeling of isolation gets weaker. The transition from outsider to insider becomes easier when good communication guidelines are provided to the learners; learner support is paramount in promoting effective online learning (Joyce and Brown, 2009).

Scaffolding “directs the instructor's attention to the need for support in the learning process” (Joyce and Brown, 2009, par. 29), and the media and technologies used for online learning must be included in the support structure, which include learning materials, library resources, and teachers. By systemizing the design of scaffolds useable in many learning environments, a variety of learning concepts such as "goal orientation, adaptability, accessibility, alignment, experiential value, collaboration, constructivism, learning orientation, multiplicity, and granularity" (Joyce and Brown, 2009, par. 31) can be selected, and designed to coincide with the learning situation. The number of social software communication tools are increasing rapidly: podcasts, games, blogs, weblogs, wikis, social networking search engines, social network services, social guides, social bookmarking, social libraries, and peer-to-peer social networks (Joyce and Brown, 2009, par. 34).

Joyce and Brown (2009) presented powerful new strategies for the adult online learner in order to share information, and support a shared community of learning. For example, (1) personal discussion folders (or rooms/forums) are used to more fully discuss a specific topic, and instructors are frequently required to post about 30% of the messages; (2) immediacy, which refers to communications within 24 hours via verbal and nonverbal behaviors that augment interpersonal relationships online; (3) live chat that is less formal and more personal that many students favor; (4) personalized e-mails from the instructor to not-so-active students help to improve a learner's activity; (5) incorporating audio/video versus all text-based content; (6) providing quick feedback and regular updates; (6) use of group discussions; and (7) providing a student-only online communication area. “Social networks (such as Facebook or Twitter) are a powerful foundation from which to develop group identity and cohesion” (Joyce and Brown, 2009, par. 46).

Johnson (2007) supports "learner-learner interaction" (par. 4). However, more recent research indicates that many learners place a high value on the "independent and self-directed nature of online learning, and place less value on learner-learner interactions such as collaborative group work" (par. 5). Due to the paradoxical approaches toward communities of learners, and independent learning, a more in depth understanding and implementation of communities of learners is not necessarily the best approach (Johnson, 2007). "An increased focus on collaboration to promote learner-learner interaction may support strong learning outcomes, but may do so at the risk of detracting from some of the more practical advantages offered by online education" (Johnson, 2007, par. 55).

Rochester Institute of Technology Online Learning (2012) provided valuable insight about adult online learning strategies:

Learners: Adults have years of experience and a wealth of knowledge; Teaching Strategy: Use your adult students as resources for yourself and for other students; use open-ended questions to draw out students' knowledge and experiences; and provide many opportunities for dialogue among students.

Adults have established values, beliefs, and opinions; Strategy: Take time to clarify student expecatations of the course; permit debate and the challenge of ideas; be careful to protect minority opinions within the class.

Adults expect to be treated as adults; Strategy: treat questions and comments with respect; acknowledge contributions students make to the class; do not expect students to necessarily agree with your plan for the course.

Adults need to feel self-directed; Strategy: engage students in designing the learning process; expect students to want more than one medium for learning and to want control over the learning pace and start/stop times.

Adults often have a problem-centered approach to learning; Strategy: show immediately how new knowledge or skills can be applied to current problems or situations; use participatory techniques such as case studies and problem-solving groups.

Adults tend to be less interested in survey types of courses and more interested in straightforward how-to; Strategy: focus on theories and concepts within the context of their applications to relevant problems; orient the course content toward direct applications rather than toward theory.

Adults have increased variation in learning styles (individual differences among people increase with age); Strategy: use a variety of teaching materials and methods to take into account differences in style, time, types, and pace of learning.

Scollins-Mantha (2008) reported that as instructors encourage learners by supporting personal issues, learners' sense of a social presence increases. Some instructors use v-mail that includes a file with the instructor's voice attached to an e-mail. As teaching and learning paradigms continue to evolve, instructors may be more able to customize each adult learner's online experience if instead of perceiving each learner merely as one individual among many that there is also a growing empirical basis that requires instructors to acknowledge that each individual student belongs to a learning community in one form or another. Now may not be the time for instructors to depend on their past teaching experiences but rather to listen to the learners if one really seeks to teach a customized online learning experience.

Examples from Online Learning Experiences

This section does not provide an example that reflects an exposure to strategies used to build a social presence within an online adult learning environment. However, this section does show that an online instructional design, which was meant to represent a best practice, can be ill aligned if not designed appropriately. (Pre-assessing students' language skills, and better matching students within teams would be a strategy to build a good/better social presence that would prevent the issues discussed next.) The learning environment in my current and last programs (the PhD and master's) primarily centered upon learning within an asynchronous, non-collaborative online environment. In programs such as my bachelor's that required collaborative learning, 99% percent of the time team efforts were negatively affected by students unwilling to contribute their fair share. By having the quality of individual assignments potentially impacted by the extra time required of the group projects, the heavier group responsibilities took away from the time available for the individual assignments. In particular, by being burdened with aiding team members with proper academic writing, the resulting fatigue and frustration negatively affected my learning: completing individual assignments more quickly caused a decrease in my writing quality, and cognitive development was short-changed.

After the group experiences with the bachelor's program, I selected programs not requiring collaboration. Even with the potential of working collaboratively with a higher caliber of peers in my second and third degree programs, and the possibility of having a higher quality of learning experience, the negative results from my bachelor's teams seemed a greater risk of being repeated in my later programs. Consequently, if I lost what could have been an improved learning experience than what actually occurred, I do not regret my decision of learning non-collaboratively. Also, since my second and third programs were for degrees in distance education, my learning during these two programs has assured me that any compensations I have had to make have been worth the achieved level of learning.

Scollins-Mantha (2008) wrote that online instructors can provide guidance for teams by assigning roles such as a "moderator, starter, or wrapper" (par. ), which aids learning team members understand where to start, adds comfort, and heightens social presence. Such guidance and other simple elements of guidance were typically not provided to the teams I worked with so I assume that if the university/instructor had rolled out more tools to develop social presence that I may have experienced more team successes. I agree with Scollins-Mantha (2008) who noted that "adding choice to the structure of a group-learning situation could help to accommodate student’s preferences for varying degrees of social presence, increase a student’s comfort and satisfaction with the experience" (par. 45).

References:

Johnson, E.S. (2007). Promoting learner-learner interactions through ecological assessments of the online environment. MERLOT Journal of Online Learning and Teaching, 3(2). Retrieved from http://jolt.merlot.org/vol3no2/johnson.htm

Joyce, K.M., & Brown, A. (2009, Winter). Enhancing social presence in online learning: Mediation strategies applied to social networking tools. Online Journal of Distance Learning Administration, XII(IV). Retrieved from http://www.westga.edu/~distance/ojdla/winter124/joyce124.html

Rochester Institute of Technology Online Learning. (2012). Adult learners. Retrieved from
http://online.rit.edu/faculty/teaching_strategies/adult_learners.cfm

Scollins-Mantha, B. (2008). Cultivating social presence in the online learning classroom:
A literature review with recommendations for practice. Retrieved from http://itdl. org/Journal/Mar_08/article02.htm

Selecting e-Tools for Effective Online Workshop Delivery for Teaching Adult Learners

Abstract

Although a non-practicing post-secondary teacher must practice the development of online e-tools for teaching, an inherent difficulty arises from the Web, which contains a bottomless availability of such tools.  Assessing the most appropriate and effective e-tools that support best practices, and the newest teaching paradigms, as well as ensuring user-friendly software compatibility, are the primary objectives of an online instructor.  While the online university carries a majority of the burden for assessing an online learner's software skills, the online instructor must also be prepared and willing to aid the online learner as well.  Identifying the best tools, and providing the most relevant information to e-learners is paramount to meeting those objectives, and achieving a successful learning environment.

Online Adult Learning

Several considerations impacted the choices made in the creation and delivery of a Workshop for adult teachers who are interested in teaching online adult learners.  Georgiades (2009) explained that instructors have a need to know what participants experience before facilitating an online course, and the best way to gain this understanding is to first be a participant.  The Workshop provides the registrants with both opportunities.

Considerations for Selecting the Tool for Workshop Delivery 

Deciding upon the use of a Web site for delivering a Workshop for adult learners was based upon previous experience with software created by Wix.com.  Furthermore, if the teacher learners attending the Workshop are physically present, the online Workshop can also be used in a traditional classroom with access to a Whiteboard and individual computer stations.  The Workshop can be presented synchronously and asynchronously.  Planning an online Workshop  avails the training to more attendees, and enables the attendees to have first-hand (hands-on) training with online training tools.  The Web site software was chosen because it provides a very large choice of professional looking templates, is free, has very good server reliability, and provides the developer with an ability to insert links (including social network links), graphics (clipart), audio and video clips, and is very customizable.  The Web site can also be accessed by attendees after the ice-breaking activity, formal pre-recorded presentation, modules, and exercises are completed. 

As part of the Workshop pre-registration process, registrants supply information necessary for an effective online Workshop.  For example, the registrants' "language fluency, accents, typing skill, and technical expertise" (Horton, 2006, p. 420) as well as available computer equipment, software, and connection speeds is provided.  The software requirements are also provided to registrants, and any pre-loading necessary such as for the Adope Flash Player, is completed prior to the Workshop.  Registrants are provided with the Workshop Web site address (http://www.wix.com/dlfpoppins/teachonlinelearners#!home|mainPage), and the Workshop program.  The Workshop design includes a beginning time  at 10:00 a.m. on April 30, 2012, for the ice-breaker.  The Workshop also includes six modules of differing lengths, six assignments generated from the modules, a post-course survey, a contact form, and additional helpful links.  During the synchronous ice-breaker, attendees are informed to link up (after the ice-breaker concludes) with the Workshop Web site to continue the Workshop by watching the introductory video, and to then proceed to the modules.  

Web Site Effectiveness

Training developers should ensure that training events help learners apply relevant  skills and knowledge.  The Workshop format is effective because it contains e-tools including e-mail, a discussion forum using a Whiteboard, a survey, audio and video conferencing, and take-away e-tools such as the attendees' personal portfolios and links to e-tools.  A good instructional design propagates the first phase toward designing e-learning, and "contributes concepts, procedures, and techniques" (Horton, 2006, p. 5) as do the other three phases ("software engineering, media design, and economics" (p. 5).  These considerations were taken under advisement, and the result is the online Workshop.  

By providing registrants with information beforehand of the technical skill, software, and hardware requirements, and the fact that all registrants are teachers, all participants should be able to learn from the Workshop.  The registrants are also provided a contact person before and during the Workshop in case of issues.  The Workshop delivers material useful for an educator considering to teach online, and the e-tools presented have been shown to enhance online learning. 

A review of the Workshop's materials and delivery environment would be conducted before scheduling.  "Rapid prototyping involves learners and/or subject matter experts (SMEs) interacting with prototypes and instructional designers in a continuous review/revision cycle" (McLaren, 2008, p. 5).  The survey responses after the Workshop are sent to the SurveyMonkey Web site at http://www.surveymonkey.com, and can be reviewed and shared with other workshop peers.  The Ice-Breaking Activity, the synchronous e-tool, aids classroom teachers transitioning to online instruction due to its similarity to face-to-face activities.  The participants are also exposed to self-directed learning activities because each module is completed when the participant wishes to do so although the directions indicate all modules, exercises, and survey should be completed by a certain date. 

The training materials supplied include videos on: Knowles' six learning theories, today's adult learner, the Blackboard/Oracle software, creating a learning management system, and delivering an engaging online class.  A 34 minute video is an introduction to the Workshop by Donna Ziegenfuss, University of Utah's Center for Teaching and Learning Excellence.  In the case of a "real" Workshop, the presenter would be the Workshop administrator (in this case, me). 

Conclusion 

The considerations for selecting the most effective tool for the Workshop delivery logically turned toward an e-learning venue.  By providing educators who are considering a transition to online teaching with a hands-on experience such educators gain exposure to the skills and technology used for online teaching.  Gaining such experience prepares such educators with first-hand exposure to the issues facing online students.  An online Workshop can also be presented in a hybrid method, which may aid educators who have not taught online before with a higher comfort level as transitioning to online teaching continues.  E-learning now occurs as soon as a child can reach the computer keyboard.  Challenging students who have such an early experience with technologies that only now (or recently) instructors have been learning remains a major challenge.  A lack of research on identifying best practices for online teaching even while learning paradigms are shifting every moment creates massive paradoxes.  What is effective teaching and effective learning retains an aura of mystery.

References:

Georgiades, J. (2009). Best practices for teaching and presenting live virtual classes and meeting.Retrieved from http://www.parsecinfo.nl/support/whitepapers/best-practice.htm

Horton, W. (2006). E-Learning by Design. John Wiley & Sons: San Francisco, CA: John Wiley       & Sons.

McLaren, A.C. (2008). Designing effective e-learning: Guidelines for practitioners. Distance Learning, (5)2, p. 47. Retrieved from ProQuest.

The Change Learning Theory and Impact for Online Learning

Dirkx, Gilley, & Gilley (2004) wrote that "learning and change are conceptualized largely as cognitive, decontextualized, individualized, and solitary practices" (p. 36).  Learning online typically requires a collaborative effort between instructor and learner, and learner to learner.  As learners increasingly face changes in the knowledge and expertise required in work (to deliver products and services) and school (to deliver assignments), learning and change must become less individualized and solitary as people depend upon each other to ensure the required deliverables.  Learning online requires a change toward collaboration and learning communities in order to gain and sustain new knowledge, and the individual becomes part of the new identity (Dirkx et al., 2004).  Ultimately, without every person "improving his or her respective skills, competencies, knowledge, and attitudes" (Dirkx et al., 2004, p. 41), change and performance improvement cannot happen. 

In order to gain cooperation during the development of online collaborative teams and learning communities, instructors need to incrementally address change with students by reinforcing and supporting learning activities (Dirkx et al., 2004).  Incremental integration of desired changes improves learners' acceptance of change.  Accepting change is critical to completely integrating new knowledge/information. 

"Refreezing" (Dirkx et al., 2004, p. 43) learners' new behaviors brought about by the desired changes then invokes a new culture that can support such learning processes as seen in collaborative learning teams.  Such teams fall short of embracing change because of the "lack of instructor or management support for change; internal conflict for resources; recognition and rewards, organizational overconfidence, lack of critical reflection skills, and the lack of commitment to change" (Dirkx et al., 2004, p. 45).

AIPPG.com (2011) also reported on Lewin's Change Theory: "one’s behavior is related both to one’s personal characteristics and to the social situation in which one finds oneself" (par. 1).  Lewin's concepts included: (1) driving forces, which push in a direction that causes change to occur, facilitate change because they push the person in the desired direction, and cause a shift in the equilibrium     towards change, (2) restraining forces, which counter driving forces, hinder change because they push the person in the opposite direction, and cause a shift in the equilibrium which opposes change, and (3) an equilibrium, which is a state of being where driving forces equal restraining forces and no change occurs, and can be raised or lowered by changes that occur between the driving and restraining forces.  (par. 2)

AIPPG.com (2004) Lewin's change theory includes three stages: the first stage is unfreezing, which is the process which involves finding a method of making it possible for people to let go of an old pattern that was counterproductive in some way, is necessary to overcome the strains of Individual resistance and group conformity, and can be achieved by the use of three methods (increase the driving forces that direct behavior away from the existing situation or status quo, decrease the restraining forces that negatively affect the movement from the existing equilibrium, and finding a combination of the two methods listed above).  The second stage is moving to a new level or changing…involving a process of change in thoughts, feeling, behavior, or all three, that is in some way more liberating or more productive.  The third stage is refreezing, which establishes the change as a new habit, so that it now becomes the 'standard operating procedure'; without this stage of refreezing, it is easy to go back to the old ways.  (par. 2)

Successfully applying Lewin's change theory requires analyzing the driving and restraining forces before a planned change is implemented.  The implication of Lewin's Change Theory for teaching adults online could include a school's preadmission department assessing an online student's technical and writing skills.  Online learners must have the prerequisite skills required for working within a school's online platform.  New learners successfully meeting the skills criteria can begin an online class, and incrementally be given assignments to increase the number of technical and writing skills required for the current and future classes.  By carefully monitoring issues new online students are having, and giving them additional tools if needed, the restraining forces decrease, and the SOP becomes the norm.

Kritsonis (2004) presents additional change theories:  Lippitt’s Phases of Change Theory, which posits that "changes are more likely to be stable if they spread to neighboring systems or to sub-parts of the system immediately affected, and changes are better rooted" (p. 1).  For example, online students frequently have to join in an online class forum.  Being given an assignment that provides students with an opportunity to discuss problems occurring with web searches, all students can learn from each other and the instructor about how to solve those problems.  The new skills learned in how to solve those problems then become the normal and accepted manner. 

Prochaska and DiClemente’s Change Theory posits that "people pass through a series of stages when change occurs, and the stages discussed in their change theory are: precontemplation, contemplation, preparation, action, and maintenance" (Kritsonis, 2004, p. 2). Because progressing through these phases is cyclical, not linear, learners relapse during their efforts to change, and must cycle through the process sometimes repeatedly (Kritsonis, 2004).  Online students who are assigned work teams all have different skillsets for working collaboratively.  A team leader typically emerges, and others begin to follow new processes required of the team as assignments are designed and submitted.  A good team (as monitored by the instructor) assists each other through trouble spots such as with writing, researching, or technical issues.  Some members will achieve completing assignments due to the new advice/processes, and others will not.  Those who do not can be assisted further, patiently, and be given different advice or tools to work through until success is achieved. 

The Social Cognitive Theory presents that "individuals can learn by direct experiences, human dialogue and interaction, and observation.  This theory proposes that behavior change is affected by environmental influences, personal factors, and attributes of the behavior itself" (Kritsonis, 2004, p. 4).  Since learners must exhibit a degree of self-efficacy, be confident in their ability to exhibit the required behavior, and know there is an applicable incentive to perform, such theory can be used by an instructor when an online team must use an online social software program to complete an assignment.  Such a program could be a wiki or blog.  As the team works on developing and using such a program to complete an assignment, all team members observe, interact, and discuss within the program how the project is progressing.  

The Theory of Reasoned Action and Planned Behavior, which posits that a learner's performance of an assigned behavior is ruled by the learner's positive intention to carry out the behavior (Kritsonis, 2004).  This theory also includes the influence from the learner's social environment.   The change theories often make rational sense but can side-track learning progress if learners' feelings, attitudes, past input, and experiences are not considered (Kritsonis, 2004).  Disregarding such elements causes resistance.  Instructors and learners must continue to strive together as technology and cultural issues emerge if change is to be recognized as a much needed part of online learning.

References:

AIPPG.com (2011). Change theory: Kurt Lewin. Retrieved from http://currentnursing.com/nursing_theory/change_theory.html

Dirkx, J., Gilley, J., & Gilley, M.A. (2004). Change theory in CPE and HRD:

Toward a holistic view of learning and change in work. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 6(1), 35-51. Retrieved from ProQuest Education Journals.Press the Escape key to close

Kritsonis, A. (2004-2005). Comparison of change theories. International Journal Of Scholarly Academic Intellectual Diversity, 8(1), 1-7. Retrieved from http://www.nationalforum.com/
Electronic%20Journal%20Volumes/Kritsonis%2C%20Alicia%20Comparison%20of%20Change%20Theories.pdf

Critiquing Literature (Research) Articles for a Dissertation

          Boote and Beile (2005) wrote that pre-dissertation students need to learn the skills required for analyzing and synthesizing research in order to successfully assess, synthesize, and improve research.  Such skills also enable students to select a dynamic dissertation topic, and apply the most appropriate methods for collecting and analyzing data.  Boote and Beile (2005) explained that having the abilities to "build on the scholarship and research of those who have come before us" (p. 3) is known as generativity, which gives meaning, integrity, and sophistication to research efforts.           Boote and Beile (2005) provided guidelines for a literature review, which includes providing an overview of the study, demarcation of what the study is and is not, and rationalizes the stated decisions.  Boote and Beile (2005) wrote that a literature review should extend beyond Creswell's guidelines, and "serve a critical role in gatekeeping, policing, and leading to new productive work, rather than merely mirroring research in a field" (p. 7). 

A literature review should contain "standards such as consistency, parsimony, elegance, and fruitfulness" (Boote and Beile, 2005, p. 7).  Eight elements for a successful literature review include "topicality, comprehensiveness, breadth, exclusion, relevance, currency, availability, and authority" (Boote and Beile, 2005, p. 7).  Boote and Beile (2005) also developed a literature review rubric that assesses "coverage, synthesis, methodology, significance, and rhetoric" (p. 8).  Assembling the following toolbox for evaluating research provides a set of questions based upon prior academic experiences, and from leaders in the field.

Lauer (2004) wrote that policymakers read education research, and attempt to make a decision about whether to trust the results and conclusions, policymakers then need to question if the research should be used to influence education policy, and how to implement changes. Because state and/or local factors, including the cost of implementation, influence policy decisions, researchers must be held accountable for the "quality, coherence, applicability and educational significance of the research" reported.  Conducting an appropriate literature review creates the infrastructure to accountability.

Part I: Toolbox for Evaluating Research Articles

Certain components as noted by Lauer (2004) that represent high quality research espouse a few characteristics such as validity, connection to prior research, ethical standards, and peer review.  The skills required for pre-dissertation students when evaluating prior research permit students (and policymakers) to appraise the trustworthiness of the research being reviewed.  Using the Applied Quick Primer (Exhibit A), and answering the following questions aid in achieving a good appraisal of a research article:

‌‌‌1.      Does the research design match the research questions?

2.      Have acceptable technical standards been adopted during data collection and analyses? 

3.      Does the current study cumulatively add to the current knowledge base?

4.      Does the current study's construction arise from prior research studies and conclusions?

5.      Does the current study impart accepted rules for ethical research thus avoiding

         researcher bias?  

6.      Have the articles under review been peer-reviewed?

7.      Are the researcher's findings coherent, e.g., based upon a theory or conceptual framework?

8.      Have the researcher's findings been replicated, and representative of a body of research?

9.      Does the research study have external validity such that the findings of the study apply to the situation of interest?  (Situation of interest includes the setting, participants, program or treatment.)

10.   If a policy or practice is changed or adopted based on the research results, what difference, if any, will it make to education?  (A research study's educational significance is indicated by the effect size of a program or practice.  Additionally, a meta-analysis reflects the average effect size of several studies, and is a more informative tool to determine educational significance.)

11.   Do the researcher's conclusions infer potentially harmful effects?

         The Board of Regents of the University of Wisconsin System (2011) provided useful

guidelines for reviewing literature: 

12.    Does the Problem Statement address whose problem it is?

13.    What are the potential negative consequences if the study is never conducted?

14.    Is there clarity in the Purpose Statement? 

15.    Does the purpose statement flow directly from the problem statement? 

16.    Do the research questions address the study's purpose and problem? 

17.    Is the research method identified? 

18.    Does the research design (e.g., case study, phenomenology, grounded theory, causal-

 comparative, correlational, quasi-experimental, etc.) answer the research questions? 

19.    Are the variables/constructs and/or phenomenon/concept/idea identified? 

20.    Is the study's specific population identified, including an estimate of the number of participants who will serve as the sample, based upon a power analysis (quantitative/mixed  method) or on design conventions (qualitative)? 

21.    Is the geographic location of the study identified?

         Northcentral University (2012) encapsulates the required elements for a dissertation's  literature review:

22.    Is the literature review an orderly, cohesive, and well-sequenced narrative that relates the problem under investigation to a body of scholarly work?

23.    Does the literature review involve a critical appraisal and synthesis of the relevant published research, including critical appraisals of the research design and methods of key studies?

24.    Does the literature review provide a chronological viewpoint about the research topic with the majority of the literature reviewed sourced from scholarly, peer-reviewed work available in the previous five years?

25.    Does the literature review provide a plentiful number of references to enable impartiality to the study's topic, and provide readers with a wide-range of information about the importance and background of the project?

        Trochim (2006) wrote that reviewing literature requires an inquiry regarding validity. 

26.    Has the literature provided measurements that infer valid conclusions or samples that enable valid inferences?  If so, how is validity stated?

         Mesher (n.d.) wrote that "if an argument is found to be invalid, all judgment must be

suspended because, to be acceptable, an argument must be valid" (par. 1):

27.    Does the researcher's argument represent a valid (acceptable) form?  If so, how is it   

supported?  (Evaluate the content of its premises to assess truthfulness—

verified/justified—or falsehood.)

28.    Does the researcher's argument represent an invalid (unacceptable) form? If so, how?

29.    Are the claims verified or justified because they follow these three rules?  Explain.

         --the claims do not conflict with what one knows or understands as true;

         --the claims do not impose a belief or acceptance of unsupported claims conflicting

           with what one knows or understands as true;

--the claims support an appropriate element of proof.

30.    What do I want to learn from reading this article? 

         Little and Parker (2010) provided a host of questions useful for an article review:  

31.    Is the type of research descriptive (what is there or what do we see), comparative (are findings general or comparable to other elements), or analytical (how does it work or what is the mechanism)?

32.    What are the key points of the article?  Example. 

33.    Is there proof such as data supporting the article's conclusions?  Example. 

34.    Is there a superior degree of evidence, and any limitations noted in the research methodology? 

35.    What is important about the researcher's conclusions? 

36.    Does the research follow the steps of the research process in a logical manner?   

37.    Were the participants fully informed about the nature of the research?  

38.    Was the autonomy/confidentiality of the participants guaranteed? 

39.    Were the participants protected from harm? 

40.    Was ethical permission granted for the study? 

41.    Was the data gathering instrument described?  Was the instrument appropriate?  How was it developed?  Were reliability and validity testing undertaken and the results discussed? Was a pilot study undertaken?

42.    If a hypothesis was identified, was it supported? 

43.    Was a recommendation for further research made?

         Guidelines from Coughian, Cronin, & Ryan (2008, p. 739) provided an additional idea for critiquing research relative to the qualitative research manner:

44.    Were credibility, dependability, transferability and goodness discussed? 

         The Methodist Hospital Employee Intranet (2012) presented guidelines for critiquing a literature review for a mixed-methods research project although most guidelines have already been touched upon:

45.    Is there an integrated summary of the current knowledge base regarding the research problem, or does the literature review contain opinion or anecdotal articles without any synthesis or summary of the whole?

References:

 

Board of Regents of the University of Wisconsin System. (2011). The writer's handbook: Learn how to write a review of literature. Retrieved from http://writing.wisc.edu/Handbook/ReviewofLiterature.html

falseBoote, D.N. & Beile, P. (2005, August/September). Scholars before researchers: On the centrality of the dissertation literature review in research preparation. Educational Researcher, 34(6), 3-15. Retrieved from ProQuest.

Coughian, M., Cronin, P., & Ryan, F. (2008). Step-by-step guide to critiquing research. Part 1: quantitative research. Retrieved from http://lancashirecare.files.wordpress.com/2008/03/step-by-step-guide-to-criti-research-part-1-quantitative-reseawrch.pdf

Coughian, M., Cronin, P., & Ryan, F. (2008). Step-by-step guide to critiquing research. Part 2: qualitative research. Retrieved from http://lancashirecare.files.wordpress.com/2008/03/2007-step-by-step-guide-to-critiquing-research-part-2-qualitative-research.pdf

Lauer, P.A. (2004). How do I know if the research warrants policy changes? Retrieved from http://www.ecs.org/html/educationIssues/Research/primer/researchwarrants.asp 

Lauer, P.A. (2004). Research utility assessment guide. Retrieved from http://www.ecs.org/html/educationIssues/Research/primer/rubric.pdf

Little, J.W., & Parker, R. (2010). How to read a scientific paper. Retrieved from http://www.biochem.arizona.edu/classes/bioc568/papers.htm#reading

Mesher, D. (n.d.). Mission critical: San Jose University critical thinking web page. Retrieved from http://www.sjsu.edu/depts/itl/graphics/main.html  

Methodist Hospital Employee Intranet. (2012). Mixed-methods research critique template. Retrieved from http://methodistintranet.fasthealth.com/docs/mixed_crit_template_school.pdf

Northcentral University. (2012). 2011 Dissertation handbook. Retrieved from http://learners.ncu.edu/ncu_diss/default.aspx?attendance=Y

Thank you, Father God, for Resurrection Day!

See my other blog...http://payingjesusgifttforward.wordpress.com/

Thank you so much, Father God, for the giving of Your Son for our sins, and for raising Him to Life three days later! I wait for His final coming soon. From BibleInfo.com:

The Scripture affirms that Jesus Christ was resurrected from the dead. It’s in the Bible, Matthew 28:5-6, NKJV. “But the angel answered and said to the women, “Do not be afraid, for I know that you seek Jesus who was crucified. He is not here; for He is risen, as He said. Come, see the place where the Lord lay.’”

The resurrection happened exactly as the prophets said it would. It’s in the Bible, I Corinthians 15:3-4, TLB. “I passed on to you right from the first what had been told to me, that Christ died for our sins just as the Scriptures said He would, and that He was buried, and that three days afterwards He arose from the grave just as the prophets foretold.”

The resurrection of Jesus is the central truth of the Christian faith. It’s in the Bible, I Corinthians 15:14-17, NIV. “And if Christ has not been raised, our preaching is useless and so is your faith. More than that, we are then found to be false witnesses about God, for we have testified about God that He raised Christ from the dead… . And if Christ has not been raised, your faith is futile; you are still in your sins.”

What does the Bible teach about our resurrection from death? Our resurrection is certain because of Christ’s resurrection. It’s in the Bible, I Corinthians 15:12-14, NIV. “But if it is preached that Christ has been raised from the dead, how can some of you say that there is no resurrection of the dead? If there is no resurrection of the dead, then not even Christ has been raised. And if Christ has not been raised, our preaching is useless and so is your faith.”

Our resurrected bodies will be different than our present ones and they will be eternal. It’s in the Bible, I Corinthians 15:51-53, TLB. “But I am telling you this strange and wonderful secret: we shall not all die, but we shall all be given new bodies! It will all happen in a moment, in the twinkling of an eye, when the last trumpet is blown. For there will be a trumpet blast from the sky, and all the Christians who have died will suddenly become alive, with new bodies that will never, never die; and then we who are still alive shall suddenly have new bodies too. For our earthly bodies, the ones we have now that can die, must be transformed into heavenly bodies that cannot perish but will live forever.”

Because of Christ resurrection, He has the power to resurrect dead relationships and those who are spiritually dead. It’s in the Bible, Philippians 3:10 NIV. “I want to know Christ and the power of His resurrection and the fellowship of sharing in His sufferings, becoming like Him in His death.” Ephesians 2:1,4,5, NIV says, “As for you, you were dead in your transgressions and sins…But because of His great love for us, God, who is rich in mercy, made us alive with Christ even when we were dead in transgressions—it is by grace you have been saved.”

We can be sure of victory in all things, because of Christ’s victory over sin and death in His resurrection. It’s in the Bible, 1 Corinthians 15:55-58, NKJV. “ O Death, where is your sting? O Hades, where is your victory?” The sting of death is sin, and the strength of sin is the law. But thanks be to God, who gives us the victory through our Lord Jesus Christ. Therefore, my beloved brethren, be steadfast, immovable, always abounding in the work of the Lord, knowing that your labor is not in vain in the Lord”.
http://www.bibleinfo.com/en/topics/resurrection

Pros and Cons of Using Second Life as a Learning Technology

          I decided I wanted to experience the Second World as an avatar ("Juleeah Lavender") in order to explore some educational areas, and other parts of the vast Second Life frontier. I decided to use the avatar so I could experience what a student would experience. I needed to do this in order to judge anything about Second Life. I was not impressed when the system crashed, or when the avatar's shoes were not functioning correctly. I especially was not impressed when I was in a public zone, and two female avatars ran around me seemingly after each other, and were using very large pistols in the process. On a positive note, when I was near other Avatars, one or two sent me an IM to let me know they were there to help; these "helpers" were from the company tech teams. After two or three hours, I could actually walk almost straight, and fly without hitting too many buildings. That was a little exhilerating, and actually created a sensation of flying. I could not get some other features to work, which were placed by other participants such as a "touch me" screen to start a hologram feature. Another person had placed some features to buy a "how to make or print" parts of a book. I "teleported" to several educational sites, which had tech tools for teaching. After a few hours, I did become quite tired of trying to learn about how to use the system.

        During the Second World experience, although I was not partaking of a lesson or in a learning situation, I kept thinking that students would have to undergo the same orientation that I did. I kept working in the system because in trying to evaluate the Second World, I did not want to give up too soon because I could be losing a valuable tool for my students. I did not want that to be the case unless I worked hard at learning the program. With just trying to evaluate the Second World in 2-3 days, I am not convinced yet that it is either valuable nor invaluable. My goal is to teach online undergraduate students, not younger students (who have already used Second World for a long time). My goal is not to impose massive frustration upon my students (not to say that our instructor did this to us…we are merely learning about new technological tools). 
         My opinion is that instead of having my students spend time designing an Avatar's many features, learning to move it, transport, buy clothes, get freebies, and so forth, so they could afterward participate in a lesson from me or someone else, I would be better off in using this tool for educating myself as a teacher, which the system provides in some ways. I would also be very skeptical of using Second World for a universally designed learning scenario for any age student: even if a physically challenged person in the real world could walk in Second Life, there are many emotional, physical, and cultural challenges which may be erased temporarily, but re-emerge after logging off Second Life. Are our children mature enough to adapt to this depth of change? I conducted some research and found some pros and cons of Second Life written by Valerie in 2008, which was posted at the Educational Development Centre Blog.
          Cons include a long learning curve, difficulty in managing student behavior and interruptions from the real world, the fact that a monetary cost frequently emerges, communications have not been perfected, increased difficulty in ensuring students take their school work seriously, impaired ability for students to reconnect to their real world, and public areas are "uncouth" or "raunchy" – it is not just a space for education, but one in which both bad and good exist.
          Pros include amazing and successful possibilities for learning through development of virtual activities, world of physical limitations – enabling a diverse and creative set of activities, greater connectivity and engagement in distance education classes, a tool used for entertainment becomes also one of education – meeting students where they are and making learning engaging and enjoyable for them, ability to have access to a virtual classroom in cases when physical teaching is not possible, highly adaptable, user created, and users retain intellectual property to their creations, utilizes experiential learning and caters to different learning methods.
         Mmmmmm….more pros than cons. This must mean there are more positives than negatives! What weight do we assign each pro and con, and who devises those weights? For example, one pro is not equal to one con; in fact, one pro may carry five times the importance than the one con.  I reviewed about 20-25 Second Life videos, and almost all were entitled "Educational". My opinion is that this technology could add some value as a supplement to the curriculum, but only as a supplement. My vote is still out on whether I would accept and implement Second Life material into any age curriculum. My instincts after seeing and experiencing first-hand the virtual environment of Second Life are to suspend using it until I can investigate it much further, and see empirical data supporting it.

Reference: 

Educational Development Centre Blog (2008, February 5). Second life in higher education: Surveying pros and cons. Retrieved May 13, 2010, from http://edc.carleton.ca/blog/index.php/
2008/02/05/second-life-in-higher-education-surveying-pros-and-cons/