Adult Learning Principles: Knowles

Abstract

One of the adult learning theorists, Knowles, provides online andragogical instructors an opportunity to model instruction that gains adult students effective learning.  Appraising Knowles' six learning principles allows in depth analysis usable toward creating guidelines and techniques that instructors and course designers require for a course's structure, delivery, and mentoring design.  Valuable insight is possible by including a review of the benefits gained if Knowles' learning principles are employed.  Foregoing an appraisal of the quality assurance issues would be unwise for the practitioner who embraces a responsibility for successful learning outcomes. 

Introduction: Adult Learning Principles

Ota, DiCarlo, Burts, Laird, & Gioe (2006) recommended that instructors seriously consider blending Knowles' six adult learning theories if substantial learning is the objective.  Each learner will learn best if assessed individually: the appropriate degree of teaching uses learning theory strategies designed for the learner.  Understanding the six learning theory assumptions in andragogy prepares facilitators with an opportunity to provide successful learning outcomes (Ota et al., 2006).  Fully understanding the implications that the adult learning theories elicit requires developing guidelines and techniques relative to the structure, delivery, and mentoring of an online course.  Although the guidelines and techniques are typically blended when teaching online adults, each learning theory is singularly presented.  Also reviewed are the benefits of adapting the adult learning theories, and quality assurance principles.

Andragogical Learning Principle Number One

Ota, DiCarlo, Burts, Laird, Gioe (2006) wrote that adult learners have a Need to Know.  When applied, adults will know prior to the learning event the reason they need to learn something.  Knowing occurs if the instructor aids the learner in becoming aware of the learning need, and demonstrates to the learner the value in the learning need.

Guidelines for the Structure of an Online Course. 

Fidishun (n.d.) wrote that the Need  to Know theory is applied if learners participate in activities that encourage "reflection on what they expect to learn, how they might use it in the future or how it will help them to meet their goals" (par. 5).  Structuring an online course requires an appraisal of activities that scholars have tested, which support reflection and goal attainment.  For example, learning portfolios used throughout a course and beyond aids learners in "uncovering gaps in knowledge and skills that form the basis of learning goals" (Collins, 2009, par. 22).

Guidelines for the Delivery of an Online Course. 

Integrating learners' early reflections, and requesting learners to provide feedback for each activity supports learners' goal quests (Fidishun, n.d.).  As the instructor monitors the processes occurring within the integration of reflecting, and reviews feedback, the potential for successful learning increases as the instructor makes technology revisions or assigns individualized lessons.

Guidelines for Mentoring the Delivery of an Online Course. 

Mentors "help protégés set out goals and learning objectives from the outset.  Together, mentors and protégés assess the progress protégés are making toward meeting those goals" (Sherman, Voight, Tibbetts, Dobbins, Evans, & Weidler, 2000, p. 5).  Mentors who guide but do not direct or spell out the learner's identification and writing of goals support self-directed learning.

Techniques for Using the Structure of an Online Course. 

Instructors can designate a time within the course for learners to reflect upon their online learning processes and progress. Students should receive leeway to discuss "new roles, plan action strategies and exchange knowledge and skills for effective and efficient online learning" (Cercone, 2008, p. 159). Learners "benefit from the use of think logs, reflective journals, and group discussions within a cooperative learning setting" (Cercone, 2008, p. 159).

Techniques for Delivering an Online Course. 

Instructors can devise assignment activities that support the learners' ability to speak about and apply real-life situations or events using the activities.  Sharing such phenomenon provides new opportunities for learners to solve  problems in groups and develop online relationships.  Activities should also be closely targeted to the learners' maturity levels (Cercone, 2008).

Techniques for Mentoring the Delivery of an Online Course. 

Instructors facilitate learning by providing encouragement, resources, and other supports to learners as they increase their knowledge and work together to resolve problems (Sherman, Voight, Tibbetts, Dobbins, Evans, & Weidler, 2000).  Instructors transitioning freely between the pedagogical and andragogical philosophies are more effective in online classroom settings because a "linear mode of  teaching (either solely andragogical or solely pedagogical) can be detrimental in helping adults learn" (Wang & Kania-Gosche, 2011, p. 75).  The pedagogicaly-based "helping relationship…and the directing relationship (pedagogical philosophy) of adult learning professionals either facilitate or inhibit critical reflection of adult learners" (Wang & Kania-Gosche, 2011, p. 75).  Such facilitation or inhibition, which affects learners' ability to critically reflect, "occurs because these two relationships determine either the andragogical methods/styles or the pedagogical methods/styles" (Wang & Kania-Gosche, 2011, p. 75).

Benefit of Adapting the Need to Know Theory. 

As the instructor inputs revisions of technologies or designates individualized lessons, the potential for successful learning increases (Collins, 2009).  Collins (2009) wrote that such changes provide learners with important new skills.  For example, learners gain an ability to "critically analyze and reflect on their situations; diagnose their learning needs with specific reference to competencies they have helped identify; and formulate socially and personally relevant learning goals" (Collins, 2009, par. 18).

Andragogical Learning Principle Number Two

Ota, DiCarlo, Burts, Laird, & Gioe (2006) explained the second adult learning theory known as  the Learners' Self-Concept.  Adults conceive that they are inherently responsible for their existence, and want to be seen and treated as capable and self-directed (Ota et al., 2006).  Instructors support the learner's self-concept by aiding adults in developing self-directed learning skills.

Guidelines for the Structure of an Online Course. 

Fidishun (n.d.) wrote that designers of technology-based adult learning programs should "use all of the capabilities of the technology including branching, the ability to skip sections a student already understands, and multiple forms of presentation of material which can assist people with various learning styles" (par. 5). By designing components of online course software to permit learners to self-direct learning, actual learning is customized to the learner's needs.   For learners still transitioning into a self-directed style or who are new to self-directed learning, software designers should also compensate sufficiently for these learners by providing a structure that promotes the transition (Fidishun, n.d.).  For these learners, the instructor can facilitate self-direction by "giving them short, directed, concrete online tasks that provide the most learning for the experience to make these adults see the relevancy of online learning" (Fidishun, n.d., par. 5).

Guidelines for the Delivery of an Online Course. 

Fidishun (n.d.) wrote that non-linear web-based learning provides learners with the ability to gain new knowledge customized to their needs.  However, some learners motivated to take an online course may still not be able to or want to self-direct their own learning.  To compensate for this characteristic, instructors  can provide as much additional contact to such students during the class' beginning stages or provide a traditional setting that uses technology-based learning modules to gain learner comfort with self-direction (Fidishun, n.d., par. 5).

Guidelines for Mentoring the Delivery of an Online Course. 

Mentors need to be proficient in monitoring students' abilities at least until the learner demonstrates the required appropriate results.  Especially at the beginning of a course, mentors should carefully monitor each student, and provide rapid feedback and materials to guide learners in the manner that they need.

Techniques for Using the Structure of an Online Course.

The online classroom should support a climate for learning by structuring e-tools usable for mutual planning, forming learning objectives with peers and the instructor, assessing learning needs, and so forth (Educational Services and Planning San Mateo County Community College District, 2011). The learning management system should provide capabilities for online e-mailing within the classroom portal, a classroom discussion forum, and private communications with the instructor.  Providing rapid feedback to learners should provide easy access to messages, and an ability to respond.

Techniques for Delivering an Online Course. 

The instructor should encourage learners to frequently post responses to questions, timely read other students' comments, and respond to classmates using e-tools that enable threaded discussions.  Learners should be asked to share their learning progress with others, and read and respond to submitted work.  Online debates, multidimensional projects, and activities suggested by learners promotes interactivity. Allowing learners sufficient time to work through conflict rather than directing an outcome is helpful in motivating self-directed learning (Cercone, 2008).

Techniques for Mentoring the Delivery of an Online Course.

"Facilitate learning by encouraging protégés to build their own knowledge while providing resources and other supports…(to help) in working through problems" (Sherman, Voight, Tibbetts, Dobbins, Evans, & Weidler, 2000, p. 5).  As instructors provide feedback to learners so that learners perceive they are being treated as capable and self-directed (Ota et al., 2006), a learner's self-concept will grow.  Instructors need to realize when and how much support the learner needs to develop self-directing skills, and design lessons and feedback appropriately.

Benefit of Adapting the Learners' Self-Concept Theory. 

When permitting students to follow a learning path that most appropriately suits them, a self-directing aptitude increases.  Learners boost their ability to design and learn the information most relevant to their needs.

Andragogical Learning Principle Three

The Role of the Learners' Experiences in adult learning addresses that every adult has a group of elements in their past, which collectively affects their repertoire (Ota, DiCarlo, Burts, Laird, & Gioe, 2006).  "There are individual differences in background, learning style, motivation, needs, interests, and goals" (Ota et al., 2006, par. 4).  Learning events should be designed to draw out such differences so sharing experiences with peers can result in new learning.

Guidelines for the Structure of an Online Course. 

Fidishun (n.d.) wrote that "adults have had a lifetime of experiences, (which) makes adult learners more heterogeneous than younger learners and also provides an additional base of knowledge that can and should be used in the classroom or technology-based learning experience" (par. 10).  Online adult learners desire to  make use of what they know, and gain acknowledgement for that knowledge.  Consequently, technology-based instruction must "include opportunities for learners to use their knowledge and experience" (Fidishun, n.d., par. 10). 

Guidelines for the Delivery of an Online Course. 

Providing learning experiences can include "discussions, simulations, problem-solving activities, or case methods" (Ota, 2006, par. 4).  Online delivery must include specific information about each learning activity but not provide so much direction that learners are prohibited from creativity.  If some learners need further direction, the instructor is easily able to provide that when a learner indicates difficulty in understanding.

Guidelines for Mentoring the Delivery of an Online Course.

Applying this theory requires that instructors use teaching strategies that enable adults to tap into their experiences, which consequently increases the adult learner's motivation toward individualized learning.  Instructors should design appropriate learning activities in order to promote learners' desire to share sometimes troubling information yet maintain a sense of security for proprietary details. 

Techniques for Using the Structure of an Online Course.
 
"Case studies, reflective activities, group projects that call upon the expertise of group members and lab experiments are examples of the type of learning activities which will facilitate the use of learners’ already acquired expertise" (Fidishun, n.d., par. 10).  Experiences that adults bring with them also extends insight about who the learner has become as a result of their experiences.  "Self-identity including habits and biases are determined from their experience" (Fidishun, n.d., par. 10).  Technology-based instruction for adults should provide opportunities for reflection.  "Reflective learning involves assessment or reassessment of assumptions” and “reflective learning becomes transformative whenever assumptions or premises are found to be distorting, inauthentic or otherwise invalid” (Fidishun, n.d., par. 10). 

Techniques for Delivering an Online Course. 

Reflective learning activities help learners to reflect upon and understand their biases and habits, and consequently transition them in the direction of new understanding about self.  "Using web-based or other technologies to have students reflect on learning activitiesor to put themselves in a different character in a case study or scenario may cause adults to reevaluate already learned information or patterns" (Fidishun, n.d., par. 10).  Cercone (2008) recommends doing a needs assessment as well as a student self-assessment before the online class begins.  The instructor should also communicate the results to the class.  Instructors and learners alike should recognize that one's experiences are valuable.  Activities should enable learners to use their knowledge and experience, and learners should be informed about why the topic important.  Instructors should also provide "practical information with examples, link new topics to what has been discussed or read, and open the class with introductions that include personal and professional backgrounds (Cercone, 2008, p. 157).

Techniques for Mentoring the Delivery of an Online Course. 

"Facilitate learning by encouraging protégés to build their own knowledge while providing resources and other supports" (Sherman, Voight, Tibbetts, Dobbins, Evans, & Weidler, 2000, p. 5). Learners should receive support while working through their problems.  Instructors can use e-tools to help learners build new information that originates from past experiences and previous knowledge (Sherman et al., 2000). Some strategies include "observations, portfolios,  journals, and videotapes" (Sherman et al., 2000).
 
Benefit of Adapting the Role of Learners' Experiences Theory. 

"A key element of experience-based learning is that learners analyze their experience by reflecting, evaluating and reconstructing it (sometimes individually, sometimes collectively, sometimes both) in order to draw meaning (and further action) from it in the light of prior experience" (Andresen, Boud & Cohen, n.d., p. 1).  While reflection about experiences can stimulate a learner to develop more openness relative to new experiences, social benefits also exist.  For example, learners' reflections can motivate "critical social action and a stance embodying moral accountability and socio-political responsibility" (Andresen et al., n.d., p. 9).

Andragogical Learning Principle Number Four

Ota, DiCarlo, Burts, Laird, & Gioe (2006) discussed the fourth learning theory known as a Readiness to Learn.  This theory defines that as adults strive to manage current actual life events, they raise to the stage of becoming ready to learn in order to use new knowledge to address the events.  Learning is less effective when an activity is geared toward a future event (Ota et al., 2006).

Guidelines for the Structure of an Online Course. 

Fidishun (n.d.) wrote that "adults become ready to learn something when, as Knowles explained, “they experience a need to learn it in order to cope more satisfyingly with real-life tasks or problems” (par. 12).  Learning opportunities in technology-based instruction should provide activities that refer to the needs and goals of learners.  Designing experiences that simulate an experience wherein a learner needs new knowledge or skill encourages students' readiness to learn (Fidishun, n.d.).

Guidelines for the Delivery of an Online Course. 

Learners need to have four characteristics to learn effectively: (1) a disposition for learning, (2) adequate cognitive functioning, (3) an adequate knowledge base for the content being presented, and (4) adequate study skills and strategies (Wood, 2007, par. 7).  Cercone (2008) wrote that "adult students are goal oriented; thus, objectives and goals should be outlined early in a course" (p. 45).  Organizing online learning events should appeal to learners' goals, and be applicable to the learners' work or home (Cercone, 2008). 

Techniques for Using the Structure of an Online Course.

Cercone (2008) wrote that activities that help learners to relate to real situations, provide opportunities for solving problems in group settings, ensure that learners' maturity levels are reflected in assignments, and enable learners to work on assignments that apply to their life and work experiences all improve a student's readiness to learn.  Many online learning tools are available that can accommodate all of the previously mentioned activities. 

Techniques for Delivering an Online Course. 

Morland and Bivens (2004) wrote that aiding learners to become more readily able to learn requires online materials that should "minimize the need for the learner to scroll through text, printed instructional article should not exceed three pages, and graphics, diagrams, or pictures should be used only when they lend meaning and clarification to the topic" (p. 3).   Instructors should provide navigation capabilities that offer article or interactive exercise links.  Hyperlinks should be set up for "key words, phrases, and/or concepts within the instructional article to some type of glossary or reference that provides definitions and additional clarification as needed by the learner" (Morland & Bivens, 2004, p. 3).

Techniques for Mentoring the Delivery of an Online Course. 

Monitoring learners' development, and helping learners to be more able to achieve new accomplishments, provides feedback to the mentor so that interventional activities can be devised (Darling-Hammond, Orcutt, & Cheung, n.d., p.35).  Mentors need to ask questions, assess completed work, and conduct one-on-one sessions with learners, which can help the mentor to decide the level and type of support the learner needs (Darling-Hammond et al., n.d.).

Benefit of Adapting the Readiness to Learn Theory.

By providing positive feedback to students about their "areas of competence and opportunities to take on responsibility successfully are extremely important.  A developmentally healthy environment will support ways in which cognitive reasoning develops with healthy identity development and moral reasoning about how to support and care for others" (Darling-Hammond, Orcutt, & Cheung, n.d., p. 38).

Andragogical Learning Principle Number Five

The fifth learning theory presented by Ota, DiCarlo, Burts, Laird, & Gioe (2006), which is known as Orientation to Learning.  Adults are learning oriented relative to tasks and problems, and desire learning that will improve their effectiveness when faced with everyday tasks and problems (Ota et al., 2006).
 
Guidelines for the Structure of an Online Course. 

Fidishun (n.d.) wrote that adults are life, task or problem-centered in their orientation to learning.  They want to see how what they are learning will apply to their life, a task they need to perform, or to solving a problem.  Technology-based instruction will be more effective if it uses real-life examples or situations that adult learners may encounter in their life or on the job (Fidishun, n.d.).

Guidelines for the Delivery of an Online Course. 

Allowing flexibility in the design of a lesson will permit student input on issues that need to be addressed in a class" (Fidishun, n.d.).  If students can bring real-life examples of school discipline challenges to a chat session in an online course on behavior management they will be anxious to participate and gain the practical experience which will help them to do better at their job (par. 13).

Guidelines for Mentoring the Delivery of an Online Course. 

Orientation to learning is guided by the mentor or instructor. Cercone (2008) wrote that instructors should ensure that students write their course goals in the beginning of the course so they can relate the course goals with their current needs and issues.

Techniques for Using the Structure of an Online Course. 

The Orientation to Learning theory appeals to an online format.  For example, as class members provide input in the class forum, classmates begin to jointly bridge relationships, and can focus on strengths and weaknesses of classmates.  Providing an online class forum link to the list of best practices helps students to understand how they are doing when compared to others especially as discussions expand (Cercone, 2008).

Techniques for Delivering an Online Course. 

A good explanation should be provided to learners about how the course's information is of value to them.  Cercone (2008) wrote that building in a good level of flexibility so learners and the entire class can provide input should be provided.  Providing a list of best practices to learners helps students to understand how they are doing when compared to others.  Maintaining consistent guidelines throughout the course is very important.  Triggering internal motivation is encouraged when learners diagnose their own needs. (Cercone, 2008).

Techniques for Mentoring the Delivery of an Online Course.

"Focus on what is important to protégés’ work environment to help protégés improve practices" (Sherman, Voight, Tibbetts, Dobbins, Evans, & Weidler, 2000, p. 5).  Providing sufficient information upfront to learners supports an Orientation to Learning as all facets of the course are explained, questions are asked, and answers supplied.

Benefit of Adapting the Orientation to Learning Theory. 

Fidishun (n.d.) explained that learners have a strong motivation to perceive that the content being learned applies to their life.  As learners' orientation to learning grows, performing tasks or solving a problem become easier.  Furthermore, using real-life examples during technology-based instruction provides exposure to many others' real-life situations.

Andragogical Learning Principle Number Six

The sixth learning theory, Motivation, explains that adults' internal inspirations rather than external are much more compelling (Ota, DiCarlo, Burts, Laird, & Gioe (2006). If teaching foregoes this theory, an adult's level of motivation for learning can be reduced dramatically.

Guidelines for the Structure of an Online Course.

Fidishun (n.d.) wrote that "while adult learners may respond to external motivators, internal priorities are more important.  Incentives such as increased job satisfaction, self-esteem and quality of life are important in giving adults a reason to learn" (par. 14).  As learners' contribute to lesson development or choose when topics are presented, learners begin to take on ownership for their learning processes. 

Guidelines for the Delivery of an Online Course. 

Learners will respond more positively when the above characteristics are provided via technology-based instruction.  Designing activities that support the growth of learners' self-esteem or create a growing sense of accomplishment motivate learners.  Autonomy in deploying self or group-designed activities also accomplishes increased motivation.

Guidelines for Mentoring the Delivery of an Online Course.

Adults are internally motivated and self-directed.  Adult learners resist learning when they feel others are imposing information, ideas or actions on them (Fidishun, 2000).  The Queensland Occupational Therapy Fieldwork Collaborative (2007) reported that mentors can establish a "graded learning program that moves from more to less structure, from less to more responsibility and from more to less direct supervision, at an appropriate pace that is challenging yet not overloading for the student" (par. 7).  Mentors should create online projects or tasks for learners that appeal to the students' interests. 

Techniques for Using the Structure of an Online Course. 

Instructors should design activities that encourage the use of resources such as a school's e-library, the internet, and other e-tools.  The online syllabus should explicitly detail the learning objectives, course goals, and student expectations for the course (Callahan, 2010).  Explicitly communicate to the students what they need to do to be successful in the class and achieve personal goals (Callahan, 2010).

Techniques for Delivering an Online Course. 

Setting the tone early in an online course can be achieved by using class surveys to determine existing knowledge (Calahan, 2010). Varying teaching methods to gain more student participation, and providing immediate feedback encourages learners.  "Incorporating problem-based learning, collaborative learning, experiments, and the use of technology such as clickers, allows for greater student interaction and the opportunity for students to practice newly acquired skills and knowledge" (Callahan, 2010, par. 5).  By supplementing course information with online webcasts, podcasts, or other e-tools, learners become more inspired by using other technologies.

Techniques for Mentoring the Delivery of an Online Course. 

Facilitating learners' activities to become more self-directed, and carry a higher level of responsibility supports learners' internal motivation to learn (Queensland Occupational Therapy Fieldwork Collaborative, 2007).  Instructors can also take advantage of developing rapport with the learners, which can maximize approachability to the instructor.  Encouraging learners to ask questions, and explore new concepts supports the development of learner motivation (Queensland Occupational Therapy Fieldwork Collaborative, 2007).  Before providing information to learners, encourage them to ask more questions of themselves and their peers.  Acknowledging goal completion additionally provides motivation to learners as milestones are reached.

Benefit of Adapting the Motivation Theory.

Callahan (2010) wrote that "students display greater enthusiasm and interest for a course if they can relate the content and course activities to their daily lives" (par. 11).  Learners' gain deeper understanding of the course materials, and learners are better able to grasp the value of what is being learned when the course materials are connected to real-world experiences or their educational goals (Callahan, 2010).

Quality Assurance Guidelines

An online adult learning program is not replete if Quality Assurance (QA) guidelines have not been considered.  Due to the importance of this topic, details concerning the design and implementation of a quality assurance process is included.  More importantly, the checklist also presents guidance for online instructors who wish to ensure that their instructional activities provide every online adult student with learning that combines all six learning theories yet additionally is customized to each learner.  Dayton and Vaughn (2007) presented the following QA guidelines:

1.  Seek a consensual definition of quality in online instruction by delineating a set of high-level principles, all or most of which also describe aspects of quality in any kind of university course. 

2.  Build a flexible QA checklist based on the adopted principles: for each principle, compose imperative statements describing general characteristics of course design or teaching. Under each of these ideal characteristics, list examples of observable discrete elements of a course design or online teaching activity.

3.  Promote the QA checklist as good-practice guidelines for faculty to use in designing new or revising existing courses.

4.  Use the QA checklist to create a rubric for peer evaluation of courses (formative) or summative evaluation by a non-peer specialist in online instruction; summative evaluations should still emphasize constructive suggestions and the discretion of the individual instructor.

5.  Use the QA checklist as a touchstone for the redesign of student questionnaires used to evaluate online courses and instructors.  (p. 480).

Appendix A was also included from Dayton and Vaughn (2007) due to its extensiveness in providing and ensuring excellence when designing online courses.

Conclusion

Embracing a program to instruct adults online should carry no greater objective than to allow learners to adapt learning materials to concentrate upon what learning is needed, and that  particularly avoids duplicating knowledge already learned.  While applying learning theories is the goal of most institutions and instructors, learning content should not be required solely because accreditation requirements carry the greatest motivation to program planning.  Ramping up creatively to offer curriculum content that promises the most learning that is needed by each learner equates to world-scale learning, and provides graduates who will have the tools needed to effectively change global problems. 

Consequently, the design of technology-based adult learning programs at the least must become much more interactive, learner-centered, and self-directed by those most interested in learning—the student.  Missed learning opportunities can then result in learning opportunities as yet unachieved: no greater travesty exists than when learners feel unchallenged because they were not empowered to manage their own learning.

References:

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Arsham, H. (2002, March). Impact of the internet on learning and teaching. United States Distance Learning Association, 16(3). Retrieved from http://www.usdla.org/html/journal/
MAR02_Issue/article01.html

Callahan, M. (2010). How do I motivate my students? Retrieved from http://www.tlpd.ttu.
edu/teach/TLTC%20Teaching%20Resources/MotivateStudents.asp

Cercone, K. (2008). Characteristics of adult learners with implications for online learning design.  AACE Journal, 16(2), 137-159. Retrieved from http://training.gaincc.org/pluginfile.php/1014/mod_resource/content/0/adult_learners_online.pdf

Collins, J. (2009, March). Lifelong learning in the 21st century and beyond. RadioGraphics, 29, 613-622. Retrieved from http://radiographics.rsna.org/content/29/2/613.full

Darling-Hammond, L., Orcutt, S., & Cheung, M. (n.d.). Learning as we grow: Development and learning. Retrieved from http://www.learner.org/courses/learningclassroom/
support/02_dev_print.pdf

Dayton, D., & Vaughn, M.M. (2007, November). Developing a quality assurance process to
guide the design and assessment of online courses. Technical Communication, 54(4),
475-489.  Retrieved from http://www.towson.edu/blackboard/ISD/supportdocs/dayton_online_teaching_TCnov07.pdf

DiCarlo, C.F., Burts, D.C., Laird, R., & Gioe, C. (2006, December). Training and the
needs of adult learners. Journal of Extension, 44(6). Retrieved from http://www.joe.org/joe/2006december/tt5.php

Educational Services and Planning San Mateo County Community College District. (2011). Learning theories related to distance learning. Retrieved from http://ctlonline.net/websavvy/
learntheory.html

Fidishun, D. (n.d.). Andragogy and technology: Integrating adult learning theory as we teach with technology. Retrieved from http://frank.mtsu.edu/~itconf/proceed00/fidishun.htmOta.

Morland, D.V., & Bivens, H. (2004). Designing instructional articles in online courses for adult learners. Innovate, 1(2). Retrieved from http://innovateonline.info/pdf/vol1_issue2/Designing_Instructional_Articles_in_Online_Courses_for_Adult_Learners.pdf

Queensland Occupational Therapy Fieldwork Collaborative. (2007). Adult learning theory and principles: Become familiar with adult learning theory and the six principles of adult learning.Retrieved from http://www.qotfc.edu.au/resource/index.html?page=65375

Sherman, R., Voight, J., Tibbetts, J., Dobbins, D., Evans, A., & Weidler, D. (2000, April).  Adult educators’ guide to designing instructor mentoring. Retrieved from http://www.calpro-online.org/pubs/Mentoring%20Guide.pdf

Wang, V.C.X., & Kania-Gosche, B. (2011). Assessing adult learners using Web 2.0 technologies. International Journal of Technology in Teaching and Learning, 7(1), 61-78. Retrieved from http://www.sicet.org/journals/ijttl/issue1101/5_VictorWang.pdf

Wood, M.M. (2007). Pre-requisites for learning: Goodness of fit with Professor Reuven Feuerstein's cognitive enrichment programs.  Retrieved from http://www.scel.org/resources/
Learning%20Readiness.pdf

Appendix A: Quality Assurance Checklist For Online Courses

1. In what ways does the online course design encourage contact between the students and the instructor?
Use a variety of communication techniques to connect with students:
_ Personalize communications with students
_ Know students by name by the end of the first two weeks of class, and use it in chats and emails
_ Provide a picture of yourself
_ Plan for increased time for student interactions compared with traditional courses
_ Provide feedback to students in a manner that is non-threatening and constructive
_ Give negative comments to students privately
_ Have question/answer session periodically throughout “class”
_ Make summary remarks available in discussion for all students
_ Serve as mentor or informal advisor to students
Provide clear guidelines for interaction with students:
_ Set clear standards for instructors’ timelines for responding to messages
_ Provide appropriate instructor contact information
_ Establish policies describing the types of communication that should take place over different channels
_ Include a schedule of chat times
Use online course features to encourage communication:
_ Use real time features such as chat rooms and whiteboards
_ Use asynchronous tools such as discussion boards and e-mail
_ Maintain separate e-mail account for web courses
_ Forward responses to frequently asked questions to all students to avoid duplication and ensure consistency of responses
_ Provide telephone access as necessary
_ Consider conducting a teleconference during and at the end of the course to discuss successes and problems

2. How does the learning environment foster reciprocity and cooperation among students?
Formalize expectations for discussions:
Establish and publish a discussion tool protocol that explains why tools are being used, what students are expected to do and how they will be evaluated
Provide the tools for student interaction:
_ Organize Web site to enable student interaction with the content, other students and instructor
_ Provide discussion forums encouraging open and honest dialog
_ Set up teams of students to interact via discussion boards and e-mail
_ Encourage students to hold virtual study sessions via chat or bulletin boards
Facilitate student interactions:
_ Include “warm up” period with light-hearted exercises aimed to help students get to know each other
_ Allow students to introduce themselves
_ Ask students to share backgrounds and interests
_ Ask students to publish online bios and/or photos to allow other members of the class to visualize them
Encourage group collaboration:
_ Create social interaction through group collaboration to facilitate high achievement
_ Encourage problem solving in groups via discussion board or e-mail
_ Create learning communities, study groups, or project groups within the class
_ Encourage students to work in groups using problem-solving activities to develop topic
understanding
_ Post papers, etc. so that students can respond to others’ work

3. In what ways is active involvement of the students facilitated throughout the course?
Provide opportunities for students to discuss the course material:
_ Actively involve students through writing and interaction
_ Provide opportunities for students to articulate and revise their thinking to insure accuracy of knowledge construction
_ Devise assignments to encourage students to employ critical thinking strategies
_ Encourage students to “talk” about what they are learning via discussion boards
_ Craft questions to foster discussion and understanding
_ Assign students to present work to the class via bulletin board postings, chat, presentations
Provide content that enables critical analysis and reflection:
_ Make content available to students in manageable segments
_ Assure that content is easily navigated
_ Make use of ancillary resources available as part of the course content
_ Provide internal communication tools for students to elaborate on course content
_ Provide content that adds value in addition to questions
_ Connect chats to modules, textbook, course content, and assignments
Have students record observations and self-assessments:
_ Provide students with ample opportunity for self-assessment
_ Require students to keep an observation/reflection journal
Use real-world data or situations in assignments:
_ Present problem-solving situations in a realistic context
_ Give assignments that provide students ample opportunity to practice and apply concepts and skills in realistic and relevant ways
_ Use real world experiences in teaching content to make subject matter more relevant
_ Ask students to relate outside events or work experiences to the subjects covered
_ Give students concrete, real world situations to analyze
_ Use simulations or labs in class

4. How are students given prompt feedback for learning activities?
Set expectations in writing:
_ Provide clearly defined statements informing students what to expect in terms of instructor response time
_ Have students agree on expectations regarding times for student assignment completion and faculty response
Provide prompt feedback on assignments:
_ Return assignments with comments quickly – within the stated period of time
_ Provide weekly guidance to the class
_ Make sure comments on student work are constructive
_ Grade assignments consistent with criteria set forth in the syllabus/module
_ Give students detailed feedback on performance early in term
_ Contact students who miss a chat
_ Provide both information feedback and acknowledgment feedback. Information feedback provides
information or evaluation.  Acknowledgment feedback confirms that some event has occurred
Use quizzes and tests for feedback:
_ Use built in, auto-graded quiz feature when appropriate
_ Give proctored examinations or other assessments
_ Tie quizzes and tests to course objectives
_ Prepare classroom exercises and problems that give students immediate feedback on performance
(self tests, for example)
Provide quick feedback in both synchronous and asynchronous settings:
_ Provide students with continuous feedback and frequent support via e-mail, chat, and discussion postings
_ Take an active role in moderating discussions, providing feedback, and participating in other
interactive components

5.  Is the course organized so that students and the instructor use their time efficiently and
effectively while focusing on the learning objectives?
Communicate time requirements clearly:
_ State time-achievement expectations at the beginning of class
_ Clearly state expectations defining minimal levels of student participation
_ Establish clear goals and communicate these to students
_ Set specific expectations for students with respect to a minimum amount of time per week for study and homework assignments
_ Clearly communicate to students the amount of time they should spend preparing for class
_ Make it clear to students the amount of time needed to understand complex material
_ Recognize that online courses need deadlines
Manage course time effectively:
_ Emphasize the importance of good study skills throughout course
_ Use TA to help with tasks, or assign some course tasks to students
_ Identify which key concepts (and methods of teaching them) can be covered in the amount of time available
_ Create interactive learning environment, but do not overwhelm students (or instructor) if interaction is too time consuming
_ Give students adequate time for completing assignments
_ Consider both in class and out of class time requirements
_ Underscore the importance of regular work, steady application, sound self pacing, and scheduling

6. How does the course design communicate high expectations?
Provide clear and detailed written guidance on expectations in the syllabus:
_ Clearly delineate institutional policy on cheating and plagiarism at start of course
_ Write objectives at the appropriate level of Bloom’s taxonomy
_ Present objectives clearly to students as part of the syllabus and learning module, if applicable
_ Explain group member roles and guidelines, and protocols if group does not function properly
_ Provide a guide to overall class structure
_ Provide a guide to appropriate tone and persona
_ Provide weights and values of graded components of course
_ Explain grading criteria clearly
_ Communicate how the integrity of student work in assignments and exams is assured
_ Clearly define expectations for participation
_ Provide course objective and learning outcomes for the course in a clearly written, straightforward statement
_ Tell students that you expect them to work hard
Ensure that content and assignments are challenging:
_ Assure that content and requirements are as demanding as a face-to-face course with identical or similar content
_ Explicitly communicate expectations, including deliverables
_ Provide corrective feedback on assignments
_ Help students set challenging goals for their own learning
_ Provide lists of suggested extra reading that support key points
Reward excellence publicly:
_ Provide examples of past students’ projects, papers, etc. for students to refer to
_ Celebrate in class successes—name students or group
_ Challenging tasks, sample cases and praise for quality work communicate high expectations
_ Publicly call attention to excellent performance by students

7. How will the learning environment be structured to accommodate diverse talents and
ways of learning?
Provide means for students to ask for and receive assistance in understanding course materials
_ Students seek assistance in understanding and mastering different learning strategies
_ Encourage students to ask questions when they don’t understand
_ Provide extra material or exercises for students who lack essential background, knowledge, or skills
Consider assessing students’ learning styles in the beginning of the course:
_ Find out about students’ backgrounds, learning styles, interests at the beginning of the semester
_ Give a Myers-Briggs type learning style assessment in the beginning of class
Be mindful of accessibility issues:
_ Provide equal access to the shared conversation in the course
_ Address accessibility issues: presentation of course materials complies with web accessibility standards as outlined by such entities as W3C, BOBBY, IDEA, ADA, WebAIM, the National Organization on Disability
Create a welcoming, safe, nurturing online environment:
_ Ensure that an equitable environment exists for gender differences in learning styles, reduction of barriers to participation and communication
_ Include cooperative and collaborative learning to distribute workload through group and support female students’ preferred method of connected learning
_ Promote gender equality by encouraging females to post messages while asking males to subside if a pattern of male domination is noticed
_ Discourage snide remarks, sarcasm, kidding, and so forth, in chats
Provide course content in a logical, consistent manner:
_ Present course content in a manner that hierarchically structures the sequence of information
_ Establish and maintain a consistent style for the course materials
_ Content is presented in a logical progression
_ Explain theory from a practical approach first, then add the structural approach
_ Design with a consistent structure, easily discernible to students of varying learning styles
Incorporate a variety of techniques for presenting course material:
_ Provide a variety of communication techniques for students to use to enhance online learning
_ Provide opportunities to collaboratively construct knowledge based on multiple perspectives,
discussion, and reflection
_ Enhance content by the use of affiliated tools such as discussion, links, notes, quizzes, audio, video, self tests, etc.
_ Use visual and auditory stimuli to motivate students and address different learning styles
_ Vary types of interaction
_ Present and engage materials in a variety of ways
_ Balance activities for all styles: books, hands on, visual, etc.
_ Use diverse teaching activities to address a broad spectrum of students